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COPYRIGHT DEPOSm 




CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS 

After St. Gaudens' Statue 



A HISTORY OF THE 

UNITED STATES 

FOR CATHOLIC SCHOOLS 



PREPARED A^D ARRANGED BY 
IE FRANCISCAN SISTERS^OF THE PERPETUAL ADORATION 

ST. ROSE CONVENT, LA CKOSSE, WIS. 



SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 
CHICAGO NEW YORK 



■ I 



CoPYIilGIIT 1014 
BY 

SCOTT, FORESMAN AND COMPANY 



DEC -7 1314 



>CIA387845 



FOREWORD 

There are many histories of the United States, each bear- 
ing its message of patriotism. The purpose of this modest vol- 
ume, "A History of the United States for Catholic Schools," — 
the revised edition of "American History Briefly Told," — is 
not to multiply books, but rather to offer a text which sets 
forth not only all the usually taught historical facts, but also 
the too often forgotten efl'orts of the Church in American 
History. The venturesome explorer, the intrepid colonizer, the 
hardy pioneer, the noble warrior, the eloquent statesman, are 
all given their due praise ; but the quiet heroism of the loyal 
sons and daughters of the Catholic Church is also lifted from 
obscurity into the light of reverent knowledge. 

Our country is justly proud of the liberty she offers to all 
her children. But these children are many in faith, and diversi- 
fied in race peculiarities. Common interests may seem to 
unite them from time to time, but there can be no true, per- 
manent union except where the spirit and the faith are domi- 
nating forces. But where is found such a bond of unity except 
in the Catholic Church? Mother Church folds her arms about 
all her children and questions not their color or their race. 

The mind may travel with lightning speed from the At- 
lantic to the Pacific, from the frozen plains of the north to 
the sunny plantations of the south; it may grasp with keen 
perception all that this great country symbolizes and dis- 
plays; the heart may glow with righteous pride for our na- 
tional achievements. But in addition to all these, the great 
share that Catholics have had in the discovery and explora- 
tion of America should thrill with reverent joy the heart of 
every Catholic student, and cause him to love more sincerely 

3 



4 FOREWORD 

and serve more loyally the chosen country of God. For this is 
the land whose borders Ericson and Columbus first touched; 
whose Great Lakes were discovered and made known by 
Ghamplain; whose broad Mississippi Valley and fertile wes- 
tern plains were first traversed by intrepid and self -sacrificing 
men, such as Father Hennepin, Du Lhut, Joliet, Father Mar- 
quette, and La Salle — Catholics, every one of them. Further- 
more, it is the land whose virgin soil was hallowed by the 
blood of the Catholic missionaries; in whose council halls rang 
the voices of eloquent Catholic statesmen ; and on whose bat- 
tlefields fearless Catholic soldiers bled, and quiet Sisters of 
Charity served. 

We may not build a shrine at every spot consecrated by 
the glorious deeds of our unlaureled Catholic heroes and hero- 
ines who have helped to make our history, but we may set up 
these shrines in the hearts of the young. Here we may hope 
to build a temple in the inner sanctuary, in which the Blessed 
Mother, the Patroness of the Republic of Washington and 
Lincoln, may be honored with devotion undying. To Mary 
Immaculate this modest work is humbly dedicated. 

In the preparation of this book, the authors have had as- 
sistance from so many persons that it would be quite imprac- 
ticable in this restricted space to mention them all. Special 
thanks are due to the Jesuit Fathers of Prairie du Chien, Wis- 
consin, and St. Louis, Missouri ; as also to other scholarly mem- 
bers of the Catholic clergy who have read and re-read the 
manuscript and ofi^ered numerous valuable suggestions. Miss 
Mary E. Tobin, Principal of the Marquette School, Chicago, 
Illinois, among others, has read critically the proofs and 
has rendered important service in preparing this work for 
publication. 



TO THE TEACHER 

Each chapter in this book contains a unit of closely asso- 
ciated facts. The teacher may well read and discuss each en- 
tire unit with his class before assigning any part of it for 
study, even though this reading may take more than one 
recitation period. 

Only those dates should be memorized which serve to asso- 
ciate important facts more closely. Dates; however, are to the 
student what milestones are to the traveler, and they should 
not be neglected. In the "Chronological Review" at the end 
of each period, important dates are listed. 

Use maps daily when discussing voyages, explorations, set- 
tlements, etc. Trace routes and locate settlements on the 
map. It may serve well to quote Carlyle here, who says that 
chronology and geography are "the two great lamps of his- 
tory. '■ ' 

In the teaching of the different periods, or epochs, into 
which the history is divided, the following points should be 
made clear to pupils : 

1. Be sure that the pupils appreciate the proper setting of 
United States history, before they begin to study it in de- 
tail. They should know the threefold chronological divisions 
of world history — Ancient, Medieval, and Modern. They should 
also understand the difference between Sacred liistory and Pro- 
fane, or Secular history; 

2. Acquaint the pupil thoroughly with the important events 
of the period of Colonization, since our later history and the 
Constitution can be understood only in the light of our pio- 
neer history. Note : 

(a) how Christianity, though represented by conflicting 

5 



6 TO THE TEACHER 

creeds, existed in each colony, and how the Catholic Church, 
like the mustard seed of the Gospel, has flourished and grown, 
as it were, into a mighty tree ; 

(6) how the emigration from many different nations has 
given us that remarkable sobriety, thrift, and progressiveness 
for which our country is characterized. Call attention to the 
fact that the original traits can still be distinguished in the 
manners and customs of the direct descendants of the pioneer 
colonizers, who inhabit certain localities, (Pennsylvania, Mary- 
land, New York, Massachusetts) ; 

(c) how the early assemblies and other institutions of self- 
government in the colonies eventually developed into our 
present republican government vested in three departments ; 

(d) that the origin of our present Constitution may be traced 
back to the principles which were set out in the Mayflower 
compact of the Pilgrims, the charter of Lord Baltimore, Penn's 
Great Law, and the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut ; 

(e) how our present jjublic school sj^stem had its origin 
in the educational zeal of the northern colony builders, and 
how our cherished parochial schools grew from humble be- 
ginnings into the splendid system which now labors so zeal- 
ously for the spiritual and intellectual welfare of our country. 



CONTENTS 



INTEODUCTION 

Foreword 3 

To THE Teacher 5 

PEEIOD OF EARLIEST INHABITANTS 

CHAPTER I'AGia 

I. The Indians 15 

PERIOD OF DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 
II. European Conditions Preparatory to the Discovery 

OF America 20 

III. The Discovery of the New^ World — The Route to India 27 

IV. The Spanish in America 35 

V. The Ei^GLisH in America 46 

VI. The French in America 53 

VII. The Dutch in America 69 

PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 

VIII. The Southern Group op Colonies 76 

IX. The Middle Group of Colonies 99 

X. The New England Group of Colonies 112 

XI. Inter-Colonial Wars 132 

PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION AND THE CONFEDERATION 
XII. Preliminaries of the War 167 

XIII. First Period of the War — 1775-1777 184 

First Year of the War — 1775 184 

Second Year of the War 190 

Third Y^ear op the War 197 

XIV. Second Period op the War — 1777-17S1 205 

Fourth Year 205 

Fifth Year 212 

Sixth Year 216 

Seventh Year 220 

XV. The Critical Period op Our Histoiiv — 1781-1 789 227 

Chronological Review 242 

7 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



PERIOD OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES TO THE CIVIL 

WAR 

CHAPTER PAGE 

XVI. Condition op the New Nation 248 

XVII. George Washington 's Administration 257 

XVIII. John Adams 's Administration — 1797-1801 275 

XIX. Thomas Jefferson 's Administration — 1801-1809 282 

XX. James Madison's Administration — 1809-1817 295 

XXI. James Monroe's Administration — 1817-1825 314 

XXII. John Quincy Adams's Administration — 1825-1829 323 

XXIII. Andrew Jackson's Administration — 1829-1837 331 

XXIV. Martin Van Buren 's ^Administration — 1837-1841 344 

XXV. The Harrison-Tyler Administration — 1841-1845 350 

XXVI. James Polk's Administration — 1845-1849 357 

XXVII. The Taylor-Fillmore Administration — 1849-1853 369 

XXVIII. Franklin Pierce's Administration — 1853-1857 378 

XXIX. James Buchanan's Administration — 1857-1861 384 

PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 

XXX. Abraham Lincoln 's Administration — 1861-1865 400 

The War to the Battle of Gettysburg 400 

First Year of the War 405 

Second Year of the War 413 

Third Year of the War 429 

XXXI. From the Battle of Gettysburg to Lee 's Surrender at 

Appomattox 432 

Political Affairs 437 

Fourth and Last Year of the War 440 

Chronological Review 456 

PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION AND EXPANSION 

XXXII. Andrew Johnson's Administration— 1865-1869 461 

XXXIII. Ulysses S. Grant's Administration — 1869-1877 476 

XXXIV. Rutherford B. Hayes's Administration — 1877-1881 491 

XXXV. The Garfield-Arthur Administration — 1881-1885 499 

XXXVI. Grover Cleveland's Administration — 1885-1889 505 

XXXVII. Benjamin Harrison's Administration — 1889-1893 512 

XXXVIII. Grover Cleveland 's Second Administration — 1893-1897. 519 

XXXIX. William McKinley's Administration— 1897-1901 526 

Spanish-American War 528 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER PAGE 

XL. A Century 's Progress 540 

XLI. Theodore Roosevelt's Administration — 1901-1909 574 

XLII. William H. Taft's Administration— 1909-1913 587 

XLIII. WooDROw Wilson 's Administration — 1913 — 595 

Chronologic \L Review 602 

APPENDIX 

The Declaration of Independence 609 

The Provisions of the Constitution Outlined 613 

The Constitution of. the United States 616 

Presidents, Vice-Presidents, Secretaries of State, 

and Chief Justices 634 

States and Territories, Capitals, Governors, Legis- 
lature 635 

INDEX 636 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

PAGE 

Cliristoplior Columbus Frontispiece 

ludian Tepee 1" 

An Irociuois Long-house 17 

Flint-tipix'd Arrows 19 

Ruins uf a Norse Chureli 20 

A AMking Ship 21 

Early Printers 22 

Depai'ture of Columbus 2S 

'Ihe Fleet of Columbus 29 

Bartholomew I>as Casas 35 

Mexican Calendar Stone 36 

DiscovEKKit.s AKD Exi'LOREUs Facing 39 

Zuni Pueblos • 40 

Spanish Mission of Santa Barbara 43 

The Ship in Which Drake Sailed Around the World 48 

Indian Village 50 

Quebec As It Is Today 57 

French Explorers and the Indians 58 

Tadousac, Canada 60 

Father Isaac Jogues 64 

Lily of the Mohawks 6(; 

The Missionary's Blessing 67 

Hudson's Ship, the Half Moon 69 

The Trading Post at New Amsterdam 70 

William and Mary College 84 

George Calvert 85 

Early Annapolis , 90 

Blackbeard 94 

James B. Oglethorpe 96 

Dutch Maiden 100 

New York in 1673 102 

A Dutch Tavern 104 

Brewster's Residence at Scrooby 113 

A Group of Pilgrims 115 

Now England Kitchen 118 

The Stocks and Pillory 124 

John Winthrop 127 

French and Indians 132 

Attacking a Fort 138 

Fort Niagara 143 

The Taking of Quebec 144 • 

Death of Wolfe 145 

Wolfe's Pistol 146 

Mansion at Westover, Virginia 148 

Boston in 1743 151 

Baltimore in 1752 152 

Pine Tree Shilling 153 

A Post Rider 154 

Spinning Wheel 161 

Puritan Costumes 1 62 

Drilling the Colonists 167 

George III 169 

Patrick Ilenrv 17:'. 

Faneuil Hall Today 176 

Old South Church". 177 

George Washington 186 

Craigie House 188 

Independence Hall 191 

Revolutionauy Leaders Facing 192 

10 



ILLUSTRATIONS 11 

PAGE 

Hessian Soldipr ' 196 

Continental Artillery 202 

Valley Forge 205 

A Sea Fight of the Period 214 

Captain John Barry 215 

Continental Currency 221 

Makers and Inteiu'Keteus op the Constitution : John Marshall, Daniel 

Webster, James Madison, Alexander Hamilton I'ueiiig 235 

Marquis de Lafayette 240 

An Emigrant Wagon 249 

Plowing in Early liavs 251 

Hishop Carroll '. " 254 

Washington's P'arewell to llis Mother Faciny 257 

Federal Hall 258 

Treasury Department Today 263 

CiiiciiHiati in 1.S19 267 

Eli Wliitiiey's Cotton Gin 270 

(4eorseto\vn University 272 

Washington's Coat of Arms 274 

Washington's Tomb 279 

The Capitol Today 283 

Fulton's Steamboat 290 

Monticello 294 

Battle of Lake Champlain 309 

Chicago in 1820 318 

Early Railroad 326 

National and States' Rights Leaders : Andrew Jackson, Stephen A. 

Douglas, John C. Calhoun, Henry Clay Facing 332 

A Western Home of the Period 349 

A Night on the California Trail 365 

The Chapel of the San Gabriel Mission 367 

Dispersing a Kansas Constitutional Convention 380 

Lincoln and His Son "Tad" Facing 400 

Tlie Monitor and the Merrimac 419 

Union Comjiandeus : William T. Sherman, Ulysses S. Grant, David G. 

Farragut, Philip H. Sheridan Facing 445 

Confederate Commanders : Robert E. Lee, Joseph B. Johnston, Jefferson 

Davis, Thomas J. Jackson Facing 448 

Reconstruction Leaders: Andrew Johnson, Thaddeus Stevens, Charles 

Sumner. William R. Seward Facing 465 

Alaskan Trading Post 473 

Joining tlie Two Pacific Railroads 481 

Caidinal McCloskcv 489 

E:i(i>< Bridge 49G 

Late Pkksidents : Rutherford li. Hayes. James A. Garfield, Chester A. 

Arthur, (irover Cleveland, Beiiiamin Harrison Facing 409 

A Cotton Field ." 502 

U. S. Battleship Texas 507 

The Statue of Libertv 509 

The Opening of Oklahoma 516 

Oahu College. Honolulu 522 

William McKinley 526 

Thatched Huts in Porto Rico 534 

The Congressional Library 539 

A Manila Scene 541 

New York Waterfront 543 

Modern Farm JNLTchinery 540 

Notre Dame University 556 

White House at Washington 562 

American Authors: Ilenrv Wadsworth Longfellow. James Russell I-owell. 

Oliver Wendell Holmes. John Grecmlea.' Vvbittier Faciiui 505 

Cardinal Gibbons ' .-,7-> 

Thiodore Roosevelt 575 

Panama Canal 577 

William H. Taft '. 587 

Chief Justice White ' 592 

President Wilson Facing 595 

Pope Pius X 600 



LIST OF MAPS 

PAGE 

Distribution of Indian Tribes 18 

St. Brandon's Island 25 

Line of Demarcation 32 

Routes Around Africa 3.S 

Magellan's Voyage 3T 

Routes of Early Spanish Explorers 41 

Routes of Early Discoverers 47 

Map Illustrating European Idea of America in 1548 54 

Jamestown and Vicinity 77 

Captain .Tcihn Smith's Map of Virginia 79 

Sontli Athuitic Coast . . 9-'! 

Philadclpliia and Vicinity 108 

Chain of I'rcnch Forts IHo 

French and Indian War 139 

Louisburg 1 41 

Mao Illustrating the Revolutionary War 183 

Bos'ton and Vicinity 184 

Campaign of 177(5 194 

Philadelphia and Vicinity 199 

Wyoming Valley 207 

Map of Southern Campaign 211 

The Original Thirteen States Facing 248 

Route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition 288 

Map Illustrating War of 1812 298 

F'ort Dearborn and Detroit 301 

Campaign of 1813 306 and 307 

Campaign Around Washington, 1814 308 

The Cumberland National Road 317 

The Erie Canal 325 

Republic of Texas 341 

The Oregon Country 355 

Disputed Mexican Boundary 359 

The Advance Toward Mexico 362 

Harper's Ferry and Vicinity 387 

Slavery and Secession ' Facing 389 

Reference Map of the Civil War .Facing 404 

Fort Sumter 405 

Washington and Vicinity 407 

Bull Run and Manassas 409 

Down the Mississippi 415 

An Insular Campaign 423 

Gettysburg and Vicinity 430 

Vicksburg Campaign 43:'. 

Chickamauga and Lookout Mountain 434 

Chattanooga to Atlanta 442 

Sherman's March North 443 

The Wilderness District 444 

Last Battles 449 

Continental Expansion Follou-ing 472 

United States Possessions, 1915 Facing 540 



12 















^fU^C^ (^-^-^.c^ ^c/^-^ ^^ ^^^^ 



A ^ c^^^c /^<:y^ 



A History of the United States 



PERIOD OF EARLIEST INHABITANTS 
CHAPTER I 

THE INDIANS 

1. Name and Origin. When Europeans discovered America 
they supposed it to be Asia, and they called the natives Indians, 
after India, which country they had hoped to reach by sailing 
westward. Whence the Indians came is not certain. We can 
only conjecture that the}^ must luive emigrated from Asia. One 
thing, however, is certain : the Indians had for long ages been 
spread over all of North and South America before white men 
came here. 

2. Characteristics. The Indian was tall, straight, vigorous, 
and well-formed, of a cinnamon color, with a broad face marked 
with high cheek-bones and small, dull eyes. His long, straight 
hair was conspicuous for a scalp-lock which grew from the top 
of his head. This lock was cherished by every "brave," as the 
Indian warrior was called, as he believed without it he could not 
enter the "Happy Hunting Ground." The Indian was a keen 
and cruel enemy, but a courageous, faithful friend where he 
felt any love. 

3. Manners and Customs. In winter or in cold climates 
the American Indian wore skins of animals, decorated with 
beads, feathers, shells, scalps, etc., while in summer or in very 
warm climates he wore little or no clothing. He lived in 
movable tents called wigwams; also in rude huts of earth or 
bark, or in caverns among mouiltain cliffs. The men hunted, 
fislied, or fought, while the women did the manual work, such 

15 



16 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



as gathering the scanty crops of maize, potatoes, and tobacco. 
Swift and stealthy of foot, the Indian followed the trail of the 
deer, buffalo, and other wild animals. The weapons used were 
bows and arrows, tomahawks, knives, and clubs. The birchbark 
canoe which he carried from one waterway to another served 
him as horse, steamboat, and railroad. The Indian had no 
written language, but sometimes recorded battles and other 




INDIAN TEPEE 



events by means of picture writing on bark, tanned skins, or 
the walls of his dwellings. 

4. Religion, The Indian religion was a nature and ancestor 
worship. He recognized one Supreme Being, the Great Spirit, 
who, he believed, dwelt in every creature and brought sunshine, 



THE INDIANS 



17 



peace, and a good harvest. He also believed in an evil spirit, 
from whom came disease and famine. He looked to a life 
beyond the grave to be spent in the "Happy Hunting Ground." 
Singing and dancing were notable features in his religion, 
and these usually preceded, accompanied, or followed all im- 
portant undertakings. 




AN IROQUOIS LONG-HOUSE 

5. Three Great Families. The Indians of our country were 
divided into several hundred tribes, which were again sub- 
divided by relationship into clans. Each tribe had for its 
name that of some animal. The turtle, bear, and w^olf were 
special favorites. The picture of this animal became the 
emblem of the tribe and was called totem. 

The Indian tribes located east of the Mississippi River were 
divided into three great families : 

(a) the Maskokis, or Mobilians, living south of the Tennessee 

River ; 
(&) the Iroquois, or Six Nations, occupying central New York, 

parts of North Carolina, and the country north and 

south of Lake Erie ; 
(c) tlie Algonquins, inhabiting the rest of the territory north 

of the Ohio River, and also the larger part of Canada. 

6. Degrees of Civilization. The early Indians may be divided 
into three grades — savage, barbarous, and semi-civilized. 

The savage Indians occupied the country west of Hudson Bay 
and west of the Rocky Mountains as far south as the northern 



18 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




'ibution of Indian 

the Mississippi ~' 



THE INDIANS 19 

part of Mexico. They did not till the soil, or settle in villages, 
but lived on fish and game. 

The barbarous Indians inhabited all of North America south 
of Hudson Bay and east of the Rocky Mountains. Rudely 
tilling tlie soil, they raised such plants as maize, or "Indian 
corn," tobacco, pumpkins, squashes, beans, tomatoes, and sun- 
flowers. They settled in villages consisting of houses of bark 
or sunburnt clay and movable tepees. (See page 16.) They 
comprised chiefly the three great families living east of the 
Mississippi River. 

These Indians played a conspicuous part in the history of 
the United States, for with them our people flrst came into con- 
tact, and with them they had first to fight. 

The semi-civilized Indians lived chiefly in the mountainous 
country from New Mexico southward as far as Chili. They 
tilled and irrigated the soil and built houses and fortresses four 
or five stories high. Their dwellings, frequently grouped in 
villages, were called pueblos, and were sometimes built high 
up on cliffs for the sake of security against the savage Indians. 

7. Mounds. Many thousands of mounds built by the pre- 
historic inhabitants of America are found in the valleys of the 
Ohio and Mississippi rivers. At one time it was thought that 
these mounds were built by a mysterious race of very superior 
civilization, because of the skill shown in the sculptured relics 
discovered in them. These thousands of relics have been care- 
fully examined and it is now believed that the "Mound 
Builders" were but the ancestors of the Indians found in the 
country by the French and English pioneers. 




FLINT-TIPPED ARROWS 



PERIOD OP 
DISCOVERIES AND EXPLORATIONS 



CHAPTER II 

EUEOPEAN CONDITIONS PEEPAEATOEY TO THE DISCOVEEY 

OF AMEEICA 

8. Early Discoveries and Explorations. This period extends 
from the discovery of America, 1492, to the settlement of James- 
town, Virginia, in 1607, and includes the discoveries and explo- 
rations made by the various European nations in the New 
World during the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 

9. Causes that Led to the Discovery of America Were: — 
(a) the belief that the earth is round; 

(6) the demand for a nearer route to India; 

(c) the desire to acquire wealth and territory, and 

(d) the desire to spread the Catholic faith. 

10. The Northmen. The descendants of the early inhabitants 
of Norway and Sweden were the first Europeans to set foot on 

the American continent. 
These bold sea-rovers discov- 
ered and colonized, succes- 
sively, Iceland (874), Green- 
land (984), and eventually 
the North American conti- 
nent (1002). This last 
achievement was made by 
Leif Ericson, who, on one of 
his voyages, sailed along the 
coast in the neighborhood of Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and 
New England. In this vicinity a Norse colony was founded. 

20 




RUINS OF A NORSE CHURCH IN 
GREENLAND 



CONDITIONS PREPARATORY TO THE DISCOVERY 



21 



Finding" wild grapes abundant, Ericson called the country 
Vinland. (Read Longfellow's "Skeleton in Armor.") 

The Northmen brought Christianity with them and the 
churches and monasteries established in Greenland maintained 
themselves for centuries. The Episcopal see, founded at 
Gardar, had a succession of sixteen or seventeen bishops. 

Th(} discovery of America by the Northmen was barren of 
all results, for the Vinland discoveries and explorations 
attracted no attention in southern Europe. The depopulation 
of Greenland by the "black death" cut off all communication 
between Vinland and Iceland. The knowledge of the route 
hither was lost and the existence of the continent almost for- 
gotten, even in Ice- 
land. The memory 
thereof, however, was 
handed down from 
generation to genera- 
tion in the Norse 
sagas. 

11. Influence of the 
Crusades. For ages 
before the discovery 
of America by Co- 
lumbus ^there had 
been more or less 

trade between Europe and Asia, and this trade increased rap- 
idly after the Crusades (1095-1291) had brought the people 
of northern and western Europe to a closer knowledge of the 
oriental world. 

12. Commercial Centers — Routes. Genoa and Venice, two 
Italian cities, controlled the commerce of the Mediterranean 
Sea, and became enriched by trade with the East. ' ' India, ' ' an 
indefinite and almost unknown region, comprising what is now 
India, Persia, China (Cathay), and Japan (Cipango), supplied 
Europe with dyestuffs, spices, costly shawls, silks, precious 




A VIKING SHIP 



22 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



stones, and ivory, in exchange for the iron, tin, lead, grains, 
wool, soap, and furs of the Mediterranean and Baltic countries. 
Venice controlled the route to India by way of the Adriatic Sea, 
Mediterranean Sea, Alexandria (chief port), the Isthmus of 
Sue/, the Red Sea, and the Indian Ocean. Genoa controlled the 
route by way of the Mediterranean Sea, the Aegean Sea, the 
Bosporus (Constantinople, chief port), the Black and Caspian 
Seas, overland through the desert to India and Eastern Asia. 
There was still a third, or middle route across Syria (Antioch, 
Damascus, Bagdad as chief centers) by way of the Persian 
Gulf and Indian Ocean. 

When Constantinople, for more than a thousand years the 
chief center of Christendom, was conquered by the Turks in 

1453, and the Crescent sup- 
planted the Cross, the Turks 
refused the use of the Bos- 
porus and the Black Sea to 
the Christian trader. Thus 
the route of Genoa was 
closed. About the same 
time excessive dues were ex- 
acted by Egypt, and the 
commerce of Venice became 
unprofitable. Hence, the 
great problem of the age, 
which eventually led to the discovery of America, was, how 
to reach India by sea. If this could be accomplished, a nearer, 
safer, and cheaper route to the rich products of the East would 
be assured. 

13. Aids to Discovery. The compass, pointing out to the 
sailor the direction in which he was moving, and the astrolabe, 
an instrument for ascertaining latitude, encouraged tlie mari- 
ner to venture far out into the sea. Gunpowder made easy the 
conquest of uncivilized people, and the printing press spread 
abroad the knowledge of newly found lands, inspiring men 




EARLY PRINTERS 



CONDITIONS PREPARATORY TO THE DISCOVERY 23 

with a longing to go into far countries in search of wealth 
and fame. 

14. A Great Traveler. Marco Polo, a native of Venice, 
accompanied his father on a trading tour to China, whence 
he returned to Venice after an absence of twenty-four years. 
Soon after his return, 1295, he wrote a book in which he told 
the story of his travels in the wonderful eastern country known 
as China, Japan, East India, and Farther India. In this book 
he confirmed the growing belief that there was an ocean east 
of Asia, and, as the earth was thought to be a globe, it was 
but natural to conclude that the ocean east of Asia and 
that west of Europe might be but one body of water, and that 
a voyage westward would bring the mariner to India. Marco 
Polo's book was widely read, and exerted great influence in 
the fifteenth century, inspiring men with the desire to reach 
the golden land described in it. 

15. The Earth a Globe, Aristotle, a famous Greek philoso- 
pher, three centuries before the Christian era, proved that the 
earth is spherical in shape ; as did also Claudius Ptolemy, an 
Egyptian astronomer of about the middle of the second century 
after Christ. Ptolemy likewise maintained the theory that the 
circumference of the earth at the equator is about 21,600 miles. 

The globular theory of the form of the earth was preserved 
during the Middle Ages partly by the Arab philosophers, but 
chiefly by the great monastic and secular scholars of the 
Catholic Church ; for example. Cardinal D 'Ailly, Roger Bacon, 
Prince Henry of Portugal, Copernicus, Galileo, and Toscanelli. 

In the time of Columbus, nearly all men of learning believed 
the earth to be a sphere, although the general public thought 
that the earth was flat, surrounded by the oceans and the 
dome-like heavens. 

16. Rotation — Revolution — Universal Gravity. Scholars and 
philosophers had proved the earth spherical, but they thought 
it stood still, and that all other heavenly bodies revolved around 
it daily. 



24 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Nicholas Copernicus (1473-1543), a Polish priest, philosopher, 
and astronomer, broke loose from the theory of Ptolemy, which 
held that the heavenly bodies moved about the earth, and 
laboriously thought out the now known facts that: 
(a) the earth makes a complete rotation on its axis every day; 
(&) the sun, and not the earth, is the center of motion. 

Catholic churchmen raised no question concerning the teach- 
ing of Copernicus until Galileo (1564-1642), a great Florentine 
philosopher, denied the accuracy of certain Scriptural state- 
ments. Galileo, not confining himself to his own province of 
science, confused revealed truths with physical discoveries and 
claimed that in Scripture are found statements which, taken 
literally, are false — such as the sun's staying its course at the 
prayers of Joshua, or the earth's being ever immovable. Ac- 
cused before the Inquisition, he continued his attacks upon the 
traditional interpretation of Holy Writ and was condemned to 
imprisonment. Pope Urban VIII, however, changed' the sen- 
tence to an honorable confinement in commodious apartments, 
where Galileo quietly pursued his studies. Five years before his 
death he became totally blind. He died professing his unshaken 
faith in the Church and with the special blessing of Pope Urban 
VIII. The Catholic Church has been accused of persecuting 
science in the person of Galileo. This accusation is untrue. 
Had Galileo not falsely interpreted Scripture he might have 
gone on undisturbed with his observations and discoveries. 

Although it had been proved that the earth is spherical, 
men could not understand why people living on the opposite 
side of this globe did not fall off, or how they walked with 
their heads downward. Isaac Newton, an English mathema- 
tician (1642-1727), born on the same day on which Galileo 
died, discovered the law of gravity. 

17. Cape of Good Hope Reached. Italy was the most ad- 
vanced nation in' navigation and geographical knowledge at 
this period, and the leading discoverers of the time— Columbus, 
Cabot, Vespucius, and Verrazano— were Italians. The position 



CONDITIONS PREPARATORY TO THE DISCOVERY 



25 



of Italy, however, prevented her from taking the lead in dis- 
covery, and Portugal became the foremost country in searching 
for a vv^aterway to the Indies around Africa. Beginning early in 
the fifteenth century, and continuing for seventy years of brave 
struggle, her vessels and seamen cautiously skirted the coasts 
of Africa. Finally, in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz, a Portu- 
guese, completed a voyage from Lisbon along the African 
coast to the extreme southern point, which he called the Cape 



CATHAJA 




AZORES ^ 

CANAROS' 



Antilla " 



INS. DE C.VERDE 



St. Brandons 
Island 




ST. BRANDON'S ISLAND AS SHOWN ON BEHAIM 'S GLOBE 

of Storms, and thence far into the Indian Ocean. The cape 
was significantly named Cape of Good Hope by the monarch 
of Portugal. Diaz's voyage was the greatest in history up to 
that time. It gave rise to the belief that India could be 
reached by sailing around Africa, and proved that the "sea 
monsters" and "fiery zones" were but phantoms. 



26 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

18. Precursors of Columbus. Cardinal Peter D'Ailly, or 
AUiacus (1350-1420), surnamed the Eagle of the French 
Doctors of the Church, wrote the Imago Mundi, a Latin trea- 
tise upon geography, in which he gives the geographical ideas 
of great men even from the early times. Columbus carefully 
studied this book, a copy of which, bearing annotations in his 
own handwriting, is still preserved at Seville, Spain, 

Prince Henry of Portugal, surnamed the Navigator (1394- 
1463), noted for his learning, valor, generosity, and piety, a 
liberal patron of science, directed a partial circumnavigation 
of Africa. The use of the compass in navigation, and, in part, 
the invention of the astrolabe, are ascribed to him. The enter- 
prises of this celebrated man did much to kindle the aspira- 
tion of Columbus. 

Paul Toscanelli (1397-1482), a famous Catholic astronomer 
living in Florence (1474), entered into correspondence with 
Columbus, encouraging his proposal, and furnishing him a map 
projected partly according to Marco Polo and partly according 
to Ptolemy. 

Martin Behaim, a friend of Columbus, made a globe to rep- 
resent the view^s of those who believed that the earth is a 
sphere. This globe was finished in 1492 before Columbus 
set out on his famous voyage and is still in existence at Nurem- 
berg. On this globe is shown the island of St. Brandon, so 
named from the Irish saint who, according to legend, crossed 
the Atlantic nearly one thousand years before Columbus. 



CHAPTER III 

THE DISCOVEEY OF THE NEW WORLD— THE EOUTE TO INDIA 

19. Sailing West to Reach the East. The places in Palestine 
hallowed by some event of our Lord's life, and, above all, the 
Holy Sepulcher of Christ, have always been looked upon by 
Christendom as the visible embodiment of the mysteries of 
Redemption, and as such have ever been held in great venera- 
tion by the faithful. In 637 the city of Jerusalem fell into the 
hands of the Mohammedans in whose exclusive possession, except 
for a short interval of time, it has been ever since. 

Columbus was of a deeply religious nature. He purposed to 
carry the gospel of Christ to heathen lands and to use the 
possible wealth he should acquire for the recovery of the Holy 
Sepulcher. 

Although learned men for a thousand years had believed the 
earth a sphere, and that Asia could be reached by sailing west- 
ward across the "Sea of Darkness," as the Atlantic was, then 
called, no one had ventured on a journey so perilous, until 
Columbus planned to test the truth of the theory, upon which 
he had pondered for many years. He had, however, no idea 
of the real size of the earth, thinking that by sailing three 
thousand miles directly west from the Canary Islands, he could 
reach India. 

20. In Quest of Help. For the carrying out of such a costly 
enterprise the support of some government was necessary. 
Columbus first sought to interest the king of Portugal in his 
project; but, receiving no encouragement, in 1485 he turned 
to Spain. Here he learned that Ferdinand and Isabella could 
not engage in any new uncertain enterprise, since Spain was 
then at war with the Moors. 

27 



28 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The Conquest of Granada ended Moorish power in Spain. 
Then Queen Isabella, guided by her confessor, Juan Perez, the 
friend of Columbus, summoned the great navigator to her court 
and listened to his plea. His suspense seemed ended, but as 
Ferdinand and Isabella would not agree to the terms he desired 
he once more set out to seek aid, this time from France. The 
queen, however, generously recalled him, offering, if necessary, 
to sell her jewels to assist. She at once issued orders for the 
necessary arrangements for his voyage. 




DEPAKTURE OF COLUMBUS (FROM AN OLD ENGRAVING) 



21. Columbus Prepares for the Voyage. Columbus now went 
to Palos, Spain, to make the necessary preparations for the 
voyage. This was a difficult task. Even the most daring 
seamen shrank from joining such a foolhardy undertaking as 
the expedition was felt to be. At length Columbus succeeded 
in fitting out three small ships manned with one hundred and 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 



29 



twenty men, many of whom were forced into service by order 
of the crown. Thus with the Santa Maria, the Nina, and the 
Finta, tilled for the most part with unwilling men, the world- 
finder was at last ready to begin his great western voyage. 

Had it not been for Jnan Perez, the Father Guardian of La 
Rabida, Columbus would scarcely have succeeded in securing 
the necessary number of men to fit out his expedition. Through 
the influence of this good Father, the Pinzon brothers, expe- 
rienced mariners of good family, entered warmly into the views 
of Columbus, and, offering assistance and means, agreed to 




THE FLEET OF COLUMBUS 



accompany him. The worthy priest also exerted no little influ- 
ence over the townspeople of Palos ; he made his rounds among 
them trying to convince them of the feasibility of the voyage 
and of the unreality of the imaginary ocean terrors. 

22. The Voyage. Columbus sailed from Palos on Friday, 
August 3d, 1492, at 8 a. m. He steered straight into the track- 
less ocean, relying firmly on God and on his own scientific 
theory. This fact alone suffices to make him one of the most 



30 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sublime figures in history. Before sailing, Columbus and his 
crew partook of the sacraments of Penance and the Holy- 
Eucharist and assisted at Holy Mass offered by Father Juan 
Perez in the monastery of Rabida. Columbus delayed for 
some weeks at the Canary Islands for the purpose of re- 
fitting his vessels. From here the little fleet sailed westward 
wafted along by light easterly breezes. Belts of calms and 
the Sargasso Sea, as also the variation of the magnetic needle 
of the compass, and other real and imaginary causes for 
alarm, rendered the nearly frenzied crew ripe for mutiny. 
They resolved to cast Columbus into the sea, should he refuse 
to return to Spain. The Grand Admiral, sustained by strength 
from on high, quelled the mutiny with gentle eloquence, and 
declared boldly that nothing could turn him from his course. 
On the night of October 11, Columbus intently watching for 
land, suddenly saw a light moving up and down in the dis- 
tance. Finally, on Friday, October 12, 1492, land was sighted, 
at which event Columbus and his men fell on their knees and 
chanted the Te Deum. 

23. The Landing. At daybreak of the memorable twelfth 
of October, 1492, Columbus stepped on shore and, kneeling 
with his crew, gave thanks to God. He took possession of the 
land in the name of the Spanish sovereigns and called it San 
Salvador (Holy Savior). Which of the three thousand islands 
of the Bahama group San Salvador was, no one knows. He 
then solemnly planted a large cross midst the chanting of the 
Vexilla Regis: 

Behold the Eoyal ensigns fly, 
Bearing the Cross's mystery; 
Where Life itself did death endure, 
And by that death did life procure. 

Columbus cruised from island to island, discovered Cuba and 
Haiti, and left on the latter thirty-nine men to form a colony. 
This colony was soon destroyed by the natives, whose hostility 
some of its members had imprudently provoked. 



DISCOVERY OP THE NEW WORLD 31 

Columbus also discovered tobacco and the sweet potato, 
heretofore unknown to civilization. Both products became 
important factors in the markets of the world. Thinking that 
he had reached Asia, Columbus called the newly discovered 
lands West Indies, and the native people Indians. 

24. Return Voyage. In January (1493) Columbus set out 
on his return voyage with only the Nina and the Pinta. the 
Santa Maria having been wrecked on the island of Haiti. He 
took with him gold, cotton, native birds, strange plants and 
animals, and six Indians. After a fearfully stormy voyage he 
at last cast anchor in the harbor of Palos, on Friday, the 
fifteenth of March (1493), He soon went to Barcelona, where 
the most distinguished attention was lavished upon him by 
the Si:>anisli crown and people. The Indians were duly 
instructed and baptized. Queen Isabella stood at the font of 
baptism as their godmother. 

25. Later Voyages of Columbus. Columbus made three other 
voyages to the New World. In 1493 he discovered Porto Rico, 
the Windward Islands, Jamaica; in 1498, the island of Trin- 
idad ; later, in the same year, the continent of South America 
at the mouth of the Orinoco River; and in 1502, Central 
America and Panama. He was not aware, however, that he 
had discovered a continent and never doubting that all the 
land found was Asia, wondered that he did not find Asia 's vast 
riches. 

On his second expedition Columbus took with him fifteen 
hundred Spaniards in seventeen vessels with necessary sup- 
plies. And now, with strict commands from the crown to 
Christianize the Indians and always to treat them well, he 
brought the first missionaries to America. They were twelve 
in number, the Vicar-Apostolic, Father Bernard Boil, and 
eleven other priests. The Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was 
offered for the first time on the shores of America by Father 
Juan Perez. Columbus founded the city of Isabella on the 
island of Haiti and here in January (1494) the first church 



32 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



was built and High Mass was therein solemnly celebrated on 
the sixth of January. "Washington Irving says this pious 
mission was provided with all things necessary for the digni- 
fied performance of its functions, from the queen's own chapel. 
The city of Isabella, however, had a short existence. At the 
present day it is overgrown with forests in the midst of which 
are to be seen the ruins of the old church, the storehouse, and 
the residence of Columbus, all built of hewn stone. 

26. Immediate Results of the Voyages of Columbus. Colum- 
bus gave to Spain and the world a new continent. The spirit 

of discovery was intensi- 
fied, and fresh life was in- 
fused throughout Europe. 
Such was the impulse 
which he gave to voyages 
of discovery, that, in less 
than forty-five years, the 
eastern coast of North and 
South America was toler- 
ably well known ; while, in 
the interior, great empires 
had been conquered. 

27. Line of Demarcation. 
Spain and Portugal, the 
Catholic powers of Europe, 
fearing that they might 
come into collision in the rapid progress of their discoveries, 
appealed by mutual consent, to the common father of the 
faithful as a freely chosen arbitrator, to mark out the limits 
of their prospective territories. The Pope, Alexander VI 
(1493), feeling that his powerful mediation might prevent 
war and bloodshed, willingly acceded to the proposal. He 
therefore fixed what is known as the Line of Demarcation, 
extending from the north pole to the south pole at a distance 
of one hundred leagues west of the Azores and the Cape Verde 




LINE OF DEMARCATION 



DISCOVERY OF THE NEW WORLD 



33 



Islands. He decreed that all the lands discovered west of 
this lin(» were to belong to Spain, those east to Portugal. A 
treaty, between Spain and Portugal shortly after, fixed the 
line three hundred and seventy leagues west of tlie Cape Verde 
Islands, thus unwittingly apportioning Brazil to Portugal. 
This treaty, based on the papal partition, settled without a 
drop of blood a question which otherwise might have involved 
the two countries in a costly war. 

28. The New Route to India. Vasco de Gama, a Portuguese, 
in 1497, sailed from Lisbon around the Cape of Good Hope to 
Hindustan, thus finding the long-searched-for route to India. 




DIAN 
CEAN 



•— • — • — •— •- Da Gam a 

i-++-i-+-t- Cabral 
. \'ospucius 



ROUTES AROUND AFRICA AND TO SOUTH AMERICA 



Upon his return to Portugal, there was no doubt as to where 
he had been, for his ships were laden with the riches of the 
East. The goal was reached at last ! 

29. The Discovery of Brazil. The Amazon River was dis- 
covered (1500) by Vincente Pinzon, one of the companions of 
Columbus on his first voyage. About three months later, the 
Portuguese navigator, Pedro Cabral, on his way to India by 
way of the Cape of Good Hope, sighted the coast of Brazil, 



34 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

30. The Origin of the Name America. Americus Vespucius, 
a Florentine, skilled in geography and astronomy, sailed first 
in the employ of Spain (1499) and afterwards in that of 
Portngal. He made several voyages including one which made 
known a large part of the Atlantic coast of South America. 
In 1507, a year after the death of Columbus, a German 
professor named Martin Waldseemuller, in a little treatise 
upon geography, commented upon the explorations of Vespucius 
and said, "But now these parts have been extensively explored 
and another fourth part has been discovered by Americus Ves- 
pucius, therefore I do not see what is rightly to hinder us from 
calling it Amerige or America ; i. c, the land of Americus, after 
its discoverer Americus.'-' Eventually the name suggested by 
Waldseemiiller was given to the whole western continent. 

Europe, Asia, and Africa were considered three parts of the 
earth. Mela, a famous Spanish geographer, 30 a. d., believed 
in the existence of a great unvisited continent south of the 
Eurasian continent and the equator. He called it Opposite 
.World or Fourth Part. It was believed that Columbus had 
reached Asia and that Americus had coasted along a great 
continent south of Asia, called Opposite World or Fourth Part 
which should be named after him. Hence, the naming of 
America was incidental and meant no injustice to Columbus. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 

31. Columbus — Summary. Columbus discovered: 
(a) San Salvador, Cuba, and Haiti (1492) ; 

(h) Jamaica, Porto Rico, Windward Islands (1493-1498) ; 

(c) Trinidad Island, near the mouth of the Orinoco River, and 

South America (1498) ; 

(d) Central America and the' Isthmus of Panama (1502). 

32. Bartholomew Las Casas (1474-1566). This bishop of 
Chiapa in Mexico, a Dominican missionary among the Indians, 
was the first priest ordained in 

America, The title "Protector 
General of the Indians "has been 
bestowed upon him for the un- 
tiring zeal with which he served 
them for sixty years. Notwith- 
standing the purity of his life 
and the beauty of his ideas, his 
views of the Indians were so in- 
fluenced by his love for them 
that he failed to fully under- 
stand their characters. His writ- 
ings have influenced many prej- 
udiced non - Catholics against 
Spain. 

33. First City — First Spaniards in the United States. Ponce 
de Leon, liaving heard stories from the Indians of a land rich 
in gold and containing a fountain of youth, began a vain 
search for it during whicli he discovered Florida. As gov- 
ernor of Porto Rico he had founded (1511) San Juan, the 
oldest city on United States' territory. Two years later, on 

35 




BAKTHOLOilEW LAS CASAS 



36 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Easter Sunday, he planted a cross and raised the Spanish flag 
on the territory which he named Florida (Flowery Easter). 
34. Discovery of the Pacific Ocean. Balboa, a Spanish ad- 
venturer, looking from the crest of the Cordilleras, on the 
Isthmus of Panama, discovered (1513) the Pacific Ocean. He 
took possession of it and of all land bordering on it for Spain 
and named it the South Sea. Magellan later named it the 




MEXICAN CAI.EXDAK STONE 



Pacific (peaceful) because he found it so much smoother than 
the Atlantic. 

35. A Rich Empire in the Interior. Cordova (1-517) sailed 
from Cuba across the Yucatan channel, and explored the north 
coast of Yucatan. Grijalva (1518) explored the southern coast 
of Mexico, and found that the Indians of this region were 
comparatively advanced in civilization and that they possessed 
considerable wealth. He heard of a rich city in the interior, 
which he believed to be one of those described by Marco Polo. 



THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 



37 



36. The Conquest of Mexico. In consequence of the ex- 
ploits of Cordova and Grijalva, Cortez was sent (1519) by the 
governor of Cuba to explore Mexico. He built a fort on a 
favorable point which he called Vera Cruz, and then pene- 
trated into the interior of the country. He overthrew the 
empire of the Aztec Indians and thus conquered Mexico, which, 
with its rich mines, became a Spanish province. 

The Aztec Indians, a numerous and powerful people, had 
extended their sway over the adjacent tribes for three hundred 
years. They dressed in colored cotton cloth, were skilled in 
agriculture, and had constructed an excellent system of irri- 
gation. They recorded events by means of hieroglyphics, and 




''Ji\,Slrait of Maqellan 

m 



MAGELLAN'S VOYAGE 

possessed a high degree of skill in metal and feather work, 
weaving, and pottery. Their most celebrated ruler, Monte- 
zuma, was reigning when Cortez landed in Mexico. 

37. Circumnavigation of the Globe. Magellan, a Portuguese 
in the service of Spain (1519), searching for a strait leading 
to the South Sea (Pacific Ocean), led a Spanish fleet across 
the Atlantic, coasted along South America to Tierra del Fuego, 
threaded the strait now bearing his name, and sailed out upon 
the great ocean discovered by Balboa. He next struck west- 
ward for thousands of miles and discovered the Philippine 
Islands, where he was killed in an encounter with the natives. 



38 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

His companions made their way back to Spain around the 
Cape of Good Hope (1522). Thus was completed the first 
circumnavigation of the globe (1519-1522), the greatest voy- 
age recorded in the annals of the sea. 

38. Conquest of Peru (1531-1536). Francisco Pizarro con- 
quered Peru, tlie rich Inca Empire, and founded the city of 
Lima. Although much slandered and maligned by historians, 
he now stands forth in the clear, true light of real history 
not only a man of remarkable military genius, but of great 
integrity and high moral purpose. The valiant conqueror 
was murdered by a Spanish conspirator in his palace at Lima. 
Just before his death he called upon his Redeemer, and tracing 
with his bloody finger a cross upon the floor, he kissed the 
sacred symbol and expired. His remains are interred in the 
Cathedral of Lima, which had been erected by him. 

The Incas were the only shepherd Lidians. They possessed 
great flocks of llamas, which, like little camels, served as valu- 
able beasts of burden. They also supplied wool used in weav- 
ing coarse cloth which even the Spanish ladies of rank were 
proud to wear. Never before in the history of the world had so 
much gold and silver been discovered ; vessels, utensils, images, 
and beads of pure gold, and great planks and bars of solid 
silver were found. 

39. Exploration of the Atlantic Coast. Vasquez D'Ayllon 
and Estevan Gomez (1526) followed our coasts northward from 
Florida, taking notice of the rivers and bays. Somewhere on 
the coast between the mouth of the Cape Fear River and the 
James, they attempted to found a colony, which they called 
San Miguel. However, sickness soon broke out in the colony, 
D'Ayllon died, and the discouraged settlers returned to Haiti. 
In compliance with the wish of the Spanish sovereign Charles V, 
D'Ayllon was accompanied by two Dominican missionaries, 
who were the first to oft'er Divine worship within the limits 
of the present United States. 

40. The Attempted Conquest of Florida. Narvaez (1528) 




MAGELLAN 
VESPtJCIUS 



BALBOA 
SEBASTIAN OABOT 



Discoverers and Explorers 



THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 39 

led from Cuba an unsuccessful expedition of four hundred 
men to conquer Florida. The company perished miserably ; 
only four of the nund)er survived to tell one of the saddest 
tales of history. Several Franciscan missionaries, one of whom, 
Father Juan Juarez, had been consecrated bishop of Florida, 
accompanied the unfortunate expedition and shared its fate. 
Cabeza de Vaca and three companions, the only survivors, were 
made slaves by the Indians, who regarded them as supernatural 
beings and hence spared their lives. In the course of eight 
years they wandered from Florida to the Gu]f of California, 
over two thousand miles, suffering incredible dangers and tor- 
tures. At California Vaca found Spanish friends from Mexico. 
He was an educated man, and made use of what he had seen 
on his astounding journey, by writing two interesting books, 
which roused the earnest exploration and colonization of what 
is now the United States. 

41. Exploration of New Mexico and Arizona. Friar Marcos, 
an Italian Franciscan, Avas sent (1539) by the viceroy of 
Mexico to ascertain the truth of Vaca's wonderful tales, and 
to find the "Seven Cities of Cibola." Inflamed with zeal for 
the conversion of the Indians he traveled from Mexico across 
the intervening desert and discovered New Mexico and Arizona. 
Directed by the Indians, through whose villages he passed, 
he came at last in sight of the Zuni pueblos. Understand- 
ing the name of the city he saw to be Cibola, he called the 
pueblos "The Seven Cities of Cibola."' He planted a cross, 
took possession of the wild region which he called San Fran- 
cisco, and claimed it for Spain. The Indians proved hostile 
and killed one of his companions. Friar Marcos learned what 
he could of the strange terraced towns of wliich he had 
had but a glimpse, and returned to Mexico with great news, 
which he told, free from misrepresentation and exaggeration. 

42. Grand Canon Discovered. Coronado, a young Spanish 
governor of one of the Mexican provinces, was sent (1540) by 
the governor of Mexico to conquer Cibola. With the tireless 



40 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Friar Marcos as guide, he led a company of one hundred and 
eleven men from the Gulf of California northward, but found 
Cibola to be only the pueblos of the Zuni Indians. Later one 
of his companions discovered the canon of the Colorado River. 
Then turning eastward, Coronado pushed on as far as north- 
eastern Kansas. He found no wealthy cities, and no gold or 
silver, and returned (1542) to the city of Mexico. After the 
arrival of Coronado at Zuni, Friar Marcos returned to Mexico 



-^V^^^ // 



X±m-f^^ 






.-^^Kgrr -^ -. -« »u » ■js.^jT^r.:,^. 



1 



A. -*--^' 














ZUNI PUEBLOS 



on account of his physical infirmities. His three Franciscan 
companions labored among the Indians and became the first 
martyrs to their faith in the United States. 

43. Exploration of the Pacific Coast. While Coronado was 
still roaming over the desolate plains of Oklahoma and Kansas, 
his countryman, Hernando de Alarcon (1540-1541), explored 
the Colorado River to a great distance from the gulf ; and Juan 
Cabrillo (1542) explored the Pacific coast as far north as 
Oregon. 



THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 



41 



44. Discovery of the Mississippi River. Fernando de Soto, 
governor of Cuba, landed at Tampa Bay, Florida, with neaily 
six hundred men, equipped for the conquest of a kingdom 
like that of Peru or Mexico. He found no treasures, only hard- 
ships and disappointments, but discovered (1541) the Missis 
sippi River at the present site of Memphis. De Soto died in 
1542 and was buried in the great river he had discovered. 
The Spaniards called the Mississippi the River of the Holy 
Ghost. 




ADO 1540-1542 
De Soto, 1 539-1542 
Alarcon, 1540-1541 



ROUTES OF EARLY SPANISH EXPLORERS 

45. The Reformation — Effects in America. A religious 
change had taken place in Europe since the discovery of 
America. Western Europe had held one faith, the Roman 
Catholic, and all explorations in America up to this time had 
been made by Catholics. But in 1517 began what is called 
the "Protestant Reformation," which spread over many coun- 
tries of Europe. Subsequent disorders, bloody persecutions, 
and devastating wars in all the countries infested by the 
new heresies drove many to seek refuge in America. First of 
these were the Huguenots, or French heretics, who settled in 
Carolina and Florida. 



42 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

46. Oldest City in the United States Proper. Menendez 
(1565) founded St. Augustine, the oldest city within the pres- 
ent limits of the United States. He cruelly destroyed the little 
French Huguenot settlement, called Fort Carolina, which was 
located north of St. Augustine. This deed was revenged 
shortly afterwards by the French adventurer, De Gourgues, 
who, on his own responsibility, attacked St. Augustine and 
mercilessly slew the colonists. 

47. Second Oldest City. Juan de Onate, established (1605) 
on the site of an Indian pueblo, Santa Fe (contracted from a 
Spanish name meaning Holy Faith of St. Francis), the second 
oldest white settlement in the United States. Espejo explored 
New Mexico (1582), but died before he could carry out his 
project of colonizing any part of it. 

48. Spain and the Indians. The policy of Spain toward the 
Indians was one of humanity, justice, education, and moral 
suasion. Both explorers and conquerors were commanded by 
the Spanish authorities to convert the Indians and to protect 
them against ill treatment. In spite of the good intentions of 
the Spanish government, however, individual Spaniards bi^ke. 
the strict law of their country and treated the Indians with 
utmost cruelty. 

49. Spanish Settlements and Claims. During the sixteenth 
century Spain established colonies in the West Indies, Mexico, 
and Central America, and on the west and north coasts of 
South America. St. Augustine and Santa Fe were her two 
settlements within the limits of the present United States. 

Spain confined her explorations and settlements to the south- 
ern states, the Pacific coast, the West Indies, Mexico, Central 
America, and all of South America, except Brazil, which Avas 
claimed by Portugal. She based her claims on the rights of 
discovery, exploration, and conquest. Spanish occupancy in 
the New World began with the discovery of America by Co- 
lumbus (1492). It continued with the numerous discoveries, 
explorations, and conquests of other Spanish pioneers. It 



THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 



43 



flourished in hundreds of Spanish towns and colonies. Since 
1898, however, Spain holds no possessions in the New World. 

50. Spain and the New World. To Spain is due the dis- 
covery of the New World ; she it was who opened it to civiliza- 
tion. Her teachers taught the Spanish language and Christian 
faith to thousands of aborigines. There were Spanish schools 
for Indians in America as early as 1524. Many books in 
different Indian languages were printed by the Spanish in 
Mexico, where a printing press was set up as early as 1536. 
On the other hand, the only Indian book printed in America 




SPANISH MISSION OF SANTA BARBARA (CALIFORNIA) 

by the English, Avas John Eliot's Indian Bible. Spanish uni- 
versities in America were ready to celebrate their first centen- 
nial when Harvard was founded (1636). A great proportion 
of the Spanish pioneers were college-bred men, and intelligence 
went hand in hand with heroism in the early settlement of the 
New World. 

51. First Churches — First Convent. The first church in what 
is now the United States was founded at St. Augustine, Florida 
(1565) ; the second in New Mexico, near Santa Fe (1598) ; the 
third at Santa Fe (about 1606) ; and the fourth also at Santa 



44 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Fe (1627). The original walls of the church of San Miguel, 
which was built in Santa Fe (1636), are still standing, and they 
form a part of a church which is used today. The oldest con- 
vent in the United States is the historical institution of the 
Ursulines in New Orleans, established in 1727. 

52. Missionary Contribution to History. As historians, the 
early Spanish missionaries have made a great contribution to 
the world's knowledge. They bequeathed to posterity huge 
historical volumes which have become the greatest and most 
indispensable aids to a study of the real history of America. 
Of the many writers belonging to the monastic orders who 
made valuable contributions to history, some of the most 
prominent are the Franciscans Motolinia, Sahagun, Mendieta, 
and Torquemada, and the Jesuit Clavijero, 

53. The Pioneer Missionaries. The missionaries Avere the 
pioneers not only of the cross and religion but also of civili- 
zation. At the very time when the Reformation was tearing 
whole nations from the bosom of the Church, this Church, 
through her missionaries, reared her glorious banner of the 
cross in the very heart of new nations and new peoples. , Amid 
untold hardships, with persevering zeal the pioneer mission- 
aries preached the gospel to the Indians, until eventually half 
of the natives of the continent became converted to Chris- 
tianity. These pious men lost no time in the good work 
of civilizing the Indians. They studied the language of the 
natives, won their confidence, and rooted out cannibalism. 
They gathered the dwellers of the Avilderness into settled habi- 
tations, and taught them to read and write and to sow and 
reap. Thus, in the course of about a century and a half from 
the date of discovery, a free, happy, and innocent population of 
more than a 'million Indians was instructed and civilized by 
zealous missionaries. 

The conversion of the Indians was accomplished chiefly by 
the religious orders, the first of which were the Benedictines 
and the Franciscans who arrived in the last decade of the 



THE SPANISH IN AMERICA 45 

fifteenth century. These were followed by the Dominicans 
(1510) and the Jesuits (1549). All these orders had their 
examples of heroic virtue and glorious martyrdom. The Fran- 
ciscans, however, were preeminently the Apostles of Spanish 
America. 

54. Some Pioneer Martyrs. Father Juan Padilla, one of 
the companions of Friar Marcos, was the first martyr on the 
soil of Kansas. Father Louis Cancer and Father Tolosa, two 
Dominicans, suffered martyrdom immediately after setting foot 
on the soil cf Florida (1549). The Jesuits (1566) entered 
Florida, where Father Martinez was slain, while Father Segura 
and five companions won their crown in Avhat is now the state 
of Virginia. The Franciscans (1577) attempted anew the con- 
version of the natives of Florida and labored among them for 
many years. In 1597 Father Corpa was slain at the altar by 
the Indians. Subsequently all the missionary stations in 
Florida were destroyed. 



CHAPTER V 

THE ENGLISH IN AMEEICA 

55. First English Voyage to the New World. England was 
finally stirred to activity by the efforts of her rivals, Spain and 
Portngal, and by the belief that Columbus had found a new 
route to India. John Cabot, a native of Genoa and a former 
citizen of Venice, was a resident of Bristol, England, at the 
time when Columbus discovered America. Commissioned by 
Henry VH of England, in May, 1497, one year before Columbus 
discovered the mainland of South America, Cabot sailed west 
from England and discovered the continent of North America, 
on June 24th of the same year, probably at Labrador or Cape 
Breton Island. He, like Columbus, thought that the newly 
found land was a part of Cathay. 

56. Second English Voyage. John Cabot made a second 
voyage, probably accompanied by his son, Sebastian, sailing 
southward as far as the region now called North Carolina. 
England later claimed the whole of the Atlantic seaboard on 
the ground of Cabot's discoveries, but for more than sixty 
years after they were made she showed no further interest in 
them. Cabot had twiced failed to find India with its wealth, 
but he planted the cross on the shores of the New "World, as a 
Catholic priest accompanied the expeditions. 

57. English Slave Trade. Like many other people of his 
time, Sir John Hawkins could see nothing wrong in slavery. 
He regarded negroes as property similar to domestic animals, 
and he actually felt proud of his share in opening up this 
shameless traffic in America. In 1562 he began kidnapping 
negroes from the west coast of Africa. He sold them in 
the West Indies, and from there carried valuable cargoes to 
England. 

46 



TTTE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 



47 











48 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

58. Second Circumnavig-ation of the Globe. Sir Francis 
Drake (1570-1573) made three phnulering voyages to the West 
Indies, where he raided Spanish towns and despoiled Spanish 
vessels. From Panama lie saw tlie Paeific Ocean and deter- 
mined to sail on its waters. He set out from England in 
1577 with a fleet of five vessels and sailed through the strait 
discovered by Magellan fifty years before. With only one 
ship, the Pelican, he followed the Pacific coast as far north 
as Oregon, plundering Spanish vessels and capturing stores of 



THE SHIP IN WHICH DRAKE SAILED AKOL ND THE WORLD 

gold and silver. He named the coast of California and Oregon 
New Albion. He next crossed the Pacific and passed the 
Philippine Islands, discovered by Magellan, and, making his 
way across the Indian Ocean, around the Cape of Good Hope, 
finally reached England in 1580. 

59. In Search of a Northwest Passage. Frobisher made an 
unsuccessful attempt to go north of America to Asia. During 
his three voyages he explored a part of the Pacific Ocean and 
discovered a few bays and inlets on the coast of North America 
(1576-1579) among which was Frobisher Bay. 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 49 

John Davis (1585) persistently attempted to push his way 
north of America to Asia. Like Frobisher, he left only his 
name on the map of that region of perpetual winter. 

William Baffin (1616) explored Baffin Bay and discovered 
Lancaster and Smitirs souiids, two Jiortliern arms of this bay. 

60. Motives for Colonization — Attempts. In the coloniza- 
tion of America the English had various objects in view. They 
hoped to find gold and planned to make the American colonies 
stopping places on their voyages to Asia, as well as stations 
from which Spanish treasure-ships might be plundered. 

Sir Humphrey Gilbert made several ill-fated voyages to 
America, the last (1583) of which was an unsuccessful attempt 
to found a colony at Newfoundland. He was wrecked, with 
all his crew, in mid-ocean on the homeward voyage. 

Although Sir Walter Raleigh, the half-brother of Gilbert, 
never actually visited the shores of the United States, he made 
an exploring expedition to the valley of the Orinoco and two 
unsuccessful attempts to plant colonies in Virginia, Raleigh 
planned these expeditions and furnished a large part of the 
funds to fit them out. In 1584 he sent out Amidas and Barlowe, 
who explored Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, and visited Roa- 
noke Island. LTpon their return to England, Queen Elizabeth 
called the country which they described Virginia, in honor of 
her own maiden state. 

Raleigh next sent out (1585) a company of men under the 
leadership of Ralph Lane and Sir Richard Grenville. These 
established a colony on Roanoke Island. The colonists spent 
their time in searching for gold and for a western passage. 
Soon their provisions were exhausted and they went back to 
England with Sir Francis Drake, who was returning from one 
of his expeditions to the West Indies. 

Raleigh sent another colony (1587) to Roanoke Island. This 
time the company consisted of men and women under the 
command of John White. Governor White soon returned to 
England in the interest of the colony. There he found the 



50 



A HISTORY OF THE "UNITED STATES 



f :<^z 




attention of the whole kingdom directed toward the Invincible 
Armada, hence he was unable to revisit the island for some 
years. When at length he arrived at Roanoke Island in 1590 
the colony had disappeared. 

61. Results of Ra- 
leigh's Efforts. Though 
Raleigh was not success- 
ful in planting a colony 
in America, he lived long 
enough to see his plans 
realized in 1607, when 
England founded her 
first permanent settle- 
ment at Jamestown, Vir- 
ginia. 

Raleigh's American 
colonists introduced into 
England the white potato 
or "New Root," tobacco 
or "New Weed," and 
maize or "Indian Corn." 
The potato soon became 
the leading product in 
Ireland, and is now called 
the Irish potato. The 
smoking of tobacco is 
now world-wide. Its pro- 
duction constituted the 
chief source of wealth of 
several of the early English colonies. The soil and climate of 
Europe proved unsuited to the growth of Indian corn, and 
America still leads the world as a corn-producing country. 

62. The Defeat of the Invincible Armada. The crushing 
overthrow of the Invincible Armada established the sea power 
of England and marked the downfall of Spain's maritime su- 



INDIAN VILLAGE. FROM A DRAWING BY 
GOVERNOR WHITE 



THE ENGLISH IN AMERICA 51 

premaey. The Atlantic Ocean became alive with English 
cruisers and hundreds of Spanish ships fell victims to their 
attacks. 

Spain, weakened by lier conquest of the New World and by 
her long wars in Europe, never recovered from the blow 
England dealt her by the crushing overthrow of the Invincible 
Armada. 

63. First Englishman in New England. Bartholomew Gos- 
nold (1602) by sailing directly west, shortened the route 
across the Atlantic by more than one thousand five hundred 
miles. He explored the Massachusetts coast; named Cape Cod 
and Martha's A^ineyard; and attempted to make a settlement 
at Cuttyhunk Island, at the entrance of Buzzard's Bay, When 
he returned to England lie gave such glowing accounts of 
the country that the Plymouth and London Companies were 
formed for the purpose of encouraging colonization. Until 
Gosnold's expedition, no voyagers, except John Cabot, had 
undertaken the direct course across the Atlantic. His prede- 
cessors had followed the track of Columbus by way of the 
Canary Islands and the West Indies. 

64. Cause of England's Failure at Colonization. All the 
attempts made by England during the sixteenth century to 
colonize America proved failures. This was due to the follow- 
ing causes : 

(a) the main object of most of the colonists was to search for 

gold ; 
(6) the search for gold led to neglect of agriculture and to 

consequent starvation ; 

(c) the Indians proved hostile; 

(d) the Invincible Armada so absorbed the interest of the mother 

country that she paid little attention to her starving 
American colonies. 

65. The Virginia Company, This company was a commer- 
cial corporation somewhat like the stock companies of our 
day, composed of joint stockholders, many of whom were mer- 



52 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

chants and adventurers. It was organized for the purpose of 
trade and settlement in the New World and was chartered by 
James I (1606). It consisted of two divisions, the London and 
the Plyraoutli Companies, named from the cities in England 
in which they were organized. 

The king lived in London and to the London Company he 
gave the choicest land, wdiich was the fertile region between 
34° and 38° north latitude, extending one hundred miles in- 
land. The grant of the Plymouth Company included the land 
between 41° and 45° north latitude, also extending one hun- 
dred miles inland. 

The Plymouth Company attempted to plant its first settlement 
south of the Kennebec River in Maine (1607). This proved a 
complete failure, and the Company passed out of existence. A 
new corporation, however, was organized at Plymouth, Eng- 
land (1620), called the Council of Plymouth, with a grant 
of land similar to that of the old company. The first settle- 
ment in the territory granted to the Council of Plymouth was 
made by the Puritan Separatists at Plymouth, Massachusetts 
(1620). The first settlement made under the auspices of the 
London Company was at Jamestown, Virginia (1607). 

66. English Claims. England established her colonies only 
along the Atlantic coast from Nova Scotia to Florida. How- 
ever, she claimed territory from ocean to ocean, because of 
the discoveries of John Cabot, Sir Walter Raleigh, and Gos- 
nold. 

The English claims and occupancy in the New World began 
with the discovery of North America by John Cabot. They 
continued with the subsequent English enterprises and suc- 
cessful colonization along the Atlantic seaboard. England still 
occupies in the New World : Canada in North America, Belize 
in Central America, British Guiana in South America, the 
Bermuda Islands in the Atlantic, some of the islands of the 
West Indies — the Bahamas, Barbados, Jamaica, and most of 
the lesser Antilles. 



CHAPTER VI 

THE FEENCH IN AMERICA 

67. Discovery of Newfoundland Fisheries. The great de- 
mand for fish in Europe early exhausted the neighboring fishing 
grounds. While England at first sought the codfisheries about 
Iceland, the hardy French fishermen, prompted by the reports 
of John Cabot, ventured farther west each year, until at last 
they came upon the immense shoals of codfish on the banks of 
Newfoundland, probably as early as 1504. They opened up 
a great fishing industry in these waters and traded with the 
Indians of the adjacent coasts of Labrador and Nova Scotia. 

68. First French Voyage. Giovanni Verrazano, like Colum- 
bus and Cabot, was a native of Italy. Commissioned by Francis 
I, he set out in search of a passage to India (1524). Leaving 
Dieppe, France, on the frigate Dolphin, which was manned by 
trusty fishermen from the Breton ports, he sailed for the 
IVIadeira Islands and thence to the American coast where he 
landed after a stormy voyage of fifty-five days, near what is 
now called Cape Fear. Coasting northward to Nova Scotia, 
he landed at diiTerent points and discovered the mouth of the 
Hudson River and Narragansett Bay. Owing to wars and 
political contentions in Europe, which arose from the Prot- 
estant reformation, ten years elapsed before another expedi- 
tion could be sent out from France. 

69. Discovery of the St. Lawrence. James Cartier, a promi- 
nent French mariner, made three voyages (1534-1541) to the 
New World under the authority of Francis I. On his first 
voyage he sailed through Belle Isle Strait and entered the 
estuary of the St. Lawrence River, which he named in honor 
of the saint of the day. He planted the cross and the French 

53 



54 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



banner on the shores of the gulf. On his second voyage he 
ascended the St. Lawrence, saw the great rock on which 
Quebec now stands, and pushed on to an Iroquois village which 
he called Montreal. His third expedition was fitted out by 
Sieur Eoberval for the purpose of planting a colony at the 
present site of Quebec, but the attempt proved a failure. 



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MAP ILLUSTRATING EUROPEAN IDEA OF AMERICA IN 1548 

Though Cartier failed in his original object to find a western 
route to India and to discover mines of precious metal, and 
also in his efforts to plant an American colony, he nevertheless 
procured valuable information concerning the country and its 
people, and discovered and explored the St. Lawrence River 
and Gulf. 

70. French Huguenots in the South. France became so 
occupied with her wars that she gave but little thought to 
America for the next half-century, attempting only the mem- 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 55 

orable Huguenot settlements in Carolina and Florida. Gaspard 
Coligny, the leader of the French Huguenots, planned to 
establish a Huguenot state in America, and under his auspices 
Jean Ribault (1562) made an unsuccessful attempt to plant a 
settlement on the coast of South Carolina. He called the 
liarbor Port Royal and the newly constructed fortress Fort 
Carolina in honor of the reigning French sovereign, Charles 
IX. Laudonniere (1564), the leader of the second colonizing 
expedition organized by Coligny, built a second Fort Carolina 
on the St. John's River farther south. This was the settle- 
ment which was broken up and destroyed by Menendez, the 
founder of St. Augustine. France made no further attempt to 
colonize that section of the country. 

71. French Settlements. Sieur de Monts was granted by 
Henry IV a monopoly of the fur trade between the present site 
of Pliiladelphia and Cape Breton Island (40°-46°), a region 
called Acadia, which name in later years was restricted to what 
is now known as Nova Scotia. Under De Monts (1605) Port 
Royal, now Annapolis, Nova Scotia, was founded. Two years 
later'the colony was abandoned but was reoccupied (1610) and 
became a central station for the Jesuit missionaries among the 
Indians. De Monts was a Protestant, but the royal patent au- 
thorizing his enterprise provided that the natives be taught 
the Catholic faith. 

72. First Permanent French Settlement. Samuel de Cham- 
plain was the ruling spirit and prominent figure in French 
exploration and early colonization, and may justly be called 
the "Founder of Canada." He saw the possibility of great 
wealth to be gained from the fur trade and the discovery of 
gold and piously hoped to convert the Indians to the Catholic 
faith. The illustrious Champlain established (1608) a trading 
colony at Quebec, the first permanent French settlement in 
America. 

73. Champlain's Explorations — His Encounter with the 
Iroquois. Champlain explored and described our northeast 



56 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

coast, discovered the beautiful Lake Champlain (1609) and 
pushing into the interior, was the first white man to see Lakes 
Ontario and Huron. He made friends with the neighboring 
Huron and Algonquin Indians, who lived in bitter enmity with 
the Iroquois Nations located in New York and about Lake Erie. 
He (1609) accompanied an expedition of Hurons and Algon- 
quins against the Mohawks, an eastern tribe of the Five 
Nations, and defeated the hostile Indians near the present site 
of Crown Point. The Iroquois were the bravest, most powerful, 
and most bloodthirsty of the North American Indians. This 
victory of the French over the Iroquois had two far-reaching 
effects : 
(a) it made the Iroquois the deadly enemies of the French. 

This kept the latter from occupying New York and the 

Hudson Valley, and, consequently, obliged them to 

extend their settlements westward; 
(6) it rendered the Iroquois friendly to the Dutch and English, 

with whom they established a profitable fur trade. 

74. Motives Prompting French Exploration and Coloniza- 
tion. The early French pioneers sought : 

(a) a western passage to India : 
(h) mines of precious metal; 

(c) the industries afforded by the fish and fur trade; 

(d) the extension of French dominion; 

(e) especially and above all, did they seek the conversion of the 

Indian. With the French, traffic was second to religion. 
The illustrious founder of Canada, Champlain, writes, 
''The salvation of a single soul is Avorth more than the 
conquest of an empire." 

75. The First Missionaries in Quebec. Three Franciscan 
priests and one lay brother came to Canada at the invitation 
of Champlain, whose first care was to provide apostolic men 
for the neighboring Indian tribes. The Jesuits joined the 
Franciscans (1625) and the two orders labored conjointly for 
the conversion of the American Red Man. A little convent and 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 57 

chapel were erected at Quebec, and Holy Mass was for the first 
time celebrated on the banks of the mighty St. Lawrence, June 
25th, 1615. This was the beginning of Catholicity in Canada. 
During a century and a half the church of Quebec was the only 
center of faith (the Catholic colony of Maryland excepted) in 
the immense region extending from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of 
Mexico. 

76. The French Win the Indians. The French knew how to 
win the stern and silent Indians of the north. They formed 
alliances and traded with the tribes in the neighborhood. Their 
missionaries came without weapons, shared the life of the 
Indians, and surpassed them in endurance. Consequently the 
savages respected the Frenchmen and submitted to their 
authority and many of them accepted their faith. Parkman 




QUEBEC AS IT IS TODAY 

says, "France aimed to subdue, not by the sword but by the 
cross. She invaded only to convert, to civilize, and to embrace 
the natives among her children." 

77. Prosperity of Quebec. Champlain, governor of Canada, 
returned (1633) to Quebec which had for a short time been in 
the hands of the English. From now on the colony advanced 
with rapid strides on the road to prosperity. Immigrants 
flowed in, the Jesuits resumed the work commenced in 1625, and 
Quebec became the flourishing center from which missionaries 
went forth to discovery, to spiritual conquest, or to martyrdom. 



58 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Bancroft writes: "Not a cape was turned or a river entered, 
but a Jesuit led the way." 

78. Exploration of the Mississippi. Count Frontenac, an 
able governor of New France (1672-1681; 1689-1698), used his 
influence to advance the exploration of the waterways of the 
Mississippi Valley and to effect peace with the Iroquois Indians. 

Jean Nicolet, commissioned by Champlain to find a waterway 
to the Pacific, ascended the Ottawa River, and passing through 
lakes Huron and Michigan to Green Bay, began the explora- 




FRENCH EXPLORERS AND THE INDIANS 



tions which were eventually followed by Father Marquette 
and Louis Joliet. 

Father Marquette, a Jesuit missonary, and Joliet, a French 
explorer and fur trader, were commissioned by Frontenac to 
search for a passage to the South Sea. 

Joliet started from Quebec (1673) and, joined by Father 
Marquette at Mackinac, and several other Frenchmen, made his 
way through Green Bay, up the Fox River, and down the beau- 
tiful Wisconsin and the majestic Mississippi as far as the 
Arkansas River. On their way down the Mississippi, they 
disembarked for a time at the mouth of the Des Moines River, 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 59 

and were thus the first white men in the state of Iowa. They 
were joyfully welcomed by the Illinois Indians, a mild, digni- 
fied, and hospitable race. This event is well described in the 
following extract from Longfellow's Hiawatha: 

From the farthest reahns of morning 

Came the Black-Eobe chief, the Prophet, 

He the Priest of Prayer, the Pale-face, 

With his guides and his companionso 

Then the joyous Hiawatha 

Cried aloud and spoke in this wise: 

"Beautiful is the sun, O strangers, 

When you come so far to see us! 

All our town in peace awaits you, 

All our doors stand open for you; 

You shall enter all our wigwams, 

For the heart's right hand we give you." 

And the Black-Eobe chief made answer: 

"Peace be with you Hiawatha, 

Peace be with you and your people. 

Peace of prayer, and peace of pardon. 

Peace of Christ and joy of Mary! " 

All the warriors of the nation 

Came to bid the strangers welcome, 

"It is well, ' ' they said, ' ' O brothers, 

That you come so far to see us ! " 

Then the Black-Kobe chief, the Prophet, 

Told them of the Virgin Mary, 

And her blessed Son, the Saviour. 

And the chiefs made answer saying: 

"We have listened to your message. 

We have heard your words of wisdom, 

We will think on what you tell us. 

It is well for us, O brothers. 

That you come so far to see us." 

At the mouth of the Arkansas they became convinced that 
the river would not carry them to the Pacific, and they retraced 
their course by way of the Illinois. After spending some time 
at the mission of St. Francis Xavier, Green Bay, Joliet returned 
to Quebec to report to Frontenac. 



60 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



The humble and saintly Father Marquette preached the gospel 
to the Miamis, who dwelt in the north of Illinois, around the 
present site of Chicago. Father Marquette named the Missis- 
sippi (so-called by the Indians) the river of the Immaculate 
Conception. 

79. Results of the Discovery of the Mississippi. Father 
Marquette, by his extraordinary voyage, revealed to the world 
the wonderful fact that the St. Lawrence communicates with 
the Gulf of Mexico by an almost uninterrupted chain of lakes 
and rivers. The whole Mississippi Valley, the richest, most, 
fertile and accessible part of North America, was open to 
France. 

80, Further Explorations. Robert La Salle, second only 
to Champlain among the French explorers, a sincere Catliolic, 
a man of strong mind and iron will, set out from Canada to 




TADOUSAC, CANADA. FATHER MARQUETTE LIVED HERE MANY YEARS 



complete the work of Father Marquette and Joliet. His aims 
were twofold : 

(a) to establish military and trade centers at various points; 
(h) to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi River. 

The accomplishment of these two objects, would put within 
French control the valuable fur trade of the interior. It w^ould 
also give them a waterway on which the furs could be trans- 
ported more conveniently than on the St. Lawrence, which is 
frozen for a considerable part of the year. 

La Salle, having discovered the Ohio River (1669), established 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 61 

(1679) Fort Frontenac on Lake Ontario where Kingston now 
stands, and from here he made a series of explorations which 
lasted nearly ten years. He built and launched on the Niagara 
River, the Griffin, which was the first vessel to sail upon the 
waters of the Great Lakes. Accompanied by a small band 
including three Franciscan priests, he navigated lakes Erie, 
St. Clair, Huron, and Michigan. From Lake Michigan he made 
his way to the Illinois River where he established a fort near 
the present site of Peoria. 

In 1682 La Salle floated down the Mississippi to its mouth, 
planted the cross and took possession of the great central 
valley of the continent for France, naming it Louisiana in 
honor of Louis XIV. Two years later he attempted to plant a 
colony at the mouth of the Mississippi, but failing to find the 
river, he landed instead on the shores of Texas. While trying 
to reach Canada to secure aid. La Salle was treacherously 
killed by one of his company. 

Father Hennepin, a Franciscan in La Salle's company, dis- 
covered Niagara Falls. Exploring the northern Mississippi, 
he ascended as far as the present site of St. Paul, where he dis- 
covered and named the Falls of St. Anthony of Padua. On 
this expedition, he was captured by the Sioux Indians, from 
whom he was rescued by Du Lhut, the French fur trader (1679). 

81. French Posts. To make good their claims to the Mis- 
sissippi Valley, the French built a chain of forts from Canada 
to the Gulf of Mexico, about sixty in all — among them Detroit 
(1686), Duluth (1701), and Vincennes (1702). They also 
planted several settlements on the gulf itself — Biloxi (1699), 
Mobile (1700), and New Orleans (1718). 

82. French Territory. France claimed : 

(a) Acadia (comprising what is now New Brunswick, Nova 
Scotia, and a part of Maine) by virtue of the explora- 
tions of Verrazano and De Monts; 

(&) the St. Lawrence and Great Lake basins by virtue of the 
explorations of Cartier and Champlain; 



62 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(c) the basin of the Mississippi River by virtue of the explora- 
tions of Joliet, Fathers Marquette and Hennepin, and 
La Salle. 
The English also laid claim to this region because of the 
previous discovery by John Cabot, hence these rival claims 
nececsarily became the cause of future contention and vv^ar. 

83. French Claims. The French claims in the New World 
began with the exploring voyage of Verrazano (1-524). They 
were strengthened by the subsequent French explorations, and 
the numerous posts and settlements established along the St. 
Lawrence, Great Lakes, and the Mississippi, and ended with the 
treaty of Paris, 1763, which was the outcome of the French 
and Indian war. France still holds in the New World : French 
Guiana in South America, three of the islands of the West 
Indies — Martinique, St. Bartholomew, Guadeloupe — and two 
small islands south of Newfoundland, Miquelon, and St. Pierre. 

84. The Missionary Pioneers. The Catholic missionaries in 
French America, like those in Spanish America, were the pio- 
neers of the cross, of exploration, of colonization, and of civ- 
ilization. The cross always accompanied, and sometimes even 
preceded, the banner of earthly conquest. With sublime faith 
and patience the intrepid Franciscan and Jesuit missionaries 
pressed their toilsome way to the widely-spread Indian tribes 
of Canada, Maine, New York, Ohio, Michigan, Illinois, Minne- 
sota, and Iowa ; never pausing in spite of snows and frost and 
pathless wilds and waters, till Catholicity had made the circuit 
of New France from the estuary of the St. Lawrence to the 
mouth of the Mississippi. 

While the Franciscans were the leading evangelizers of the 
Indians in the South, the Jesuits were preeminently the Apostles 
of the North. 

85. Father Druillettes — Father Rasle. Father Druillettes, 
S. J. (1646), the Apostle of the Hurons, penetrated the forests 
lying between the St. Lawrence and the Kennebec Rivers, and 
completely won the hearts of the Abnakis. He joined Fathers 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 63 

Marquette, Allouez, and Dablon, who were laboring in northern 
Wisconsin and Michigan (1669). 

Fatlier Rasle, S. J., with seven of his Abnaki chiefs, was 
killed (1724) at the mission cross by a band of English and their 
allied pagan Mohawks who bore down npon the little Christian 
Abnaki village while most of the warriors were absent. After 
the murder of Father Rasle the Puritans would not allow a 
Catholic priest to live among the Abnakis. Nevertheless, these 
Indians remained firm in their faith. Every Sunday, before 
the priestless altars, the words of the Mass were said, vespers 
were chanted, and parents baptized their children. The 
Abnakis fought in the army of Washington beside their Eng- 
lish persecutors, and were then distinguished for their bravery, 
just as their descendants of today are distinguished for their 
tried and ardent faith. 

86. Father James Marquette, S. J. (1637-1675). Father 
Marquette was the first to labor among the Ottawas on the 
south shore of Lake Superior, Sault Ste. Marie and La Point 
being the centers of his work. He next preached to the Hurons 
of Mackinac. After his exploration of the Mississippi, he 
returned to the gentle Illini (Illinois and Iowa) whom he had 
met on his way down the river, and founded a mission at 
Kaskaskia. Conscious that death was near, he attempted to 
return to Mackinac ; but expired in the thirty-eighth year 
of his life (1675), on the shores of a small river of Michigan 
which bears his name. He was buried near where he died, but 
twelve years later his body was exhumed and interred beneath 
the church at Mackinac. The Indians frequently came to pray 
at his tomb, and French mariners never failed to invoke Father 
Marquette when they were in peril on Lake Michigan. 

87. Father Isaac Jogues (1607-1646). Father Jogues en- 
tered the Jesuit novitiate at Paris at the age of seventeen and 
immediately after his ordination (1636), at his own request, 
was sent to the Huron missions in Canada. He visited the 
Chippewa Indians and later Avas captured by the Mohawks who 



64 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



carried him to New York, where he was subjected to all the 
horrors of Indian cruelty — was made to run the gauntlet three 
times; his finger nails were torn out; his hands and feet dislo- 
cated and mutilated, and his left thumb cut off. He was held 
captive by the Indians for fifteen months. Concerning the cap- 
tivity of Father Jogues, Bancroft writes: "Roaming through 

the- stately forests of the 
Mohawk Valley, he wrote 
the name of Jesus on the 
bark of the trees, graved 
the cross, and entered into 
possession of these regions 
in the name of God, often lift- 
ing up his voice in a solitary 
chant." Through the kind- 
ness of the Dutch Governor 
Kieft, Father Jogues escaped 
and from New York was con- 
veyed to France. He was 
everywhere received with 
honor, and, notwithstanding his mutilated hands. Pope Urban 
VIII granted him special permission to read Holy Mass, saying: 
' ' It would be wrong to prevent the martyr of Christ from drink- 
ing the Blood of Christ. ' ' His heart, however, was with the Indians, 
and he boarded the first vessel that left France for America. 
Returning to Canada and once more entering New York, the 
scene of his former suffering, he received the long-coveted crown 
of martyrdom at the hands of the Mohawks (1646). 

88. Fathers Breboeuf and Lallemand. Father Breboeuf, 
S. J. (1593-1649), styled by Spalding the "Xavier of the 
Hurons," came to the Canadian missions (1625). He soon mas- 
tered the difficult Huron language and became "all to all, in 
order to gain all to Christ." 

Father Gabriel Lallemand, S. J. (1610-1649), the "Aloysius 
of the Huron Mission," called by Bancroft the "Gentle 




FATHER ISAAC JOGUES 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 65 

Lallemand," was a co-laborer of Father Breboeuf. Both of 
these illustrious missionaries were seized by the Iroquois and 
cruelly tortured. Father Breboeuf suffered for nearly three 
hours; Father Lallemand much longer. Spalding, speaking of 
the death of Lallemand and Breboeuf, says : "The former was 
a lamb, the latter a lion. The lion and the lamb were immolated 
together for their love of God and of their neighbor. Yet did 
the lamb die much more slowly than the lion." 

89. Father Daniel — Father Rene Menard — Father Claude 
Allouez. Father Daniel, S. J. (1648), while employed in mis- 
sionary labors among the Hurons, was killed at the foot of the 
altar during an Iroquois massacre. 

Father Rene Menard, S. J., a survivor of the Huron missions 
and former companion of Fathers Jogues and Breboeuf, labored 
among the Ottawas, and after incredible hardships and wan- 
derings, founded a mission on Keweenaw Bay, northern Michi- 
gan. He was lost in the forests and never again heard from 
(1661). 

Father Claude Allouez, S. J., undismayed by the fate of 
Father Menard, carried the gospel through what is now Wis- 
consin and northern Michigan, and established a mission at 
Green Bay. He was joined by Fathers Marquette and Dablon, 
and the three founded (1669) St. Mary's, the oldest city in 
Michigan. They employed themselves in evangelizing the 
vast regions extending from Green Bay to the head of Lake 
Superior. 

90. Noted Indian Converts. Most of the early missionaries 
in French America met a violent death. Their noble ranks, 
thinned by hardships, fierce tortures, and agonizing deaths, 
were filled anew by great souls who pressed forward to share 
in the toil and dangers of the missionaries. Step by step, vast 
numbers from every tribe were won over for Christ and civili- 
zation. Even the fierce Iroquois finally yielded to the benign 
influences of faith. Foremost among them was Garacontie, the 
great chief of the Five Nations, who was baptized by Bishop 



66 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



Laval in the Cathedral of Quebec and became the bulwark of 
Christianity. At his baptism were present, the French governor 
as sponsor, and other Frenchmen of noble rank, lordly sachems 
from the Hurons on Lake Huron, gentle Mohegan chiefs from 
the banks of the Hudson, faithful Abnakis from the valley of 

the St. Lawrence, stately Chippewas 
from Lake Superior, and noble Iro- 
quois from every tribe in New York. 
Another notable Indian convert 
was the great Mohawk chief, Kryn. 
Coming under the influence of the 
Christian village of La Prairie, he 
soon became a devout Catholic. 
"When his tribe would not listen to 
his pleadings that they become wor- 
shipers of the true God, he raised 
his wild war cry for the last time in 
the streets of the village, and, gather- 
ing a number of devoted followers, 
knelt with them amid the graves of 
his fathers and uttered a fervent 
prayer for his nation. Then he arose, 
and, with streaming eyes, led his 
followers to the village of La Prairie 
on the St. Lawrence. 

Catherine Tekawitha, styled the 
"Lily of the Mohawks," was born 
in New York on the very soil drenched with the blood of 
Father Jogues. Becoming an orphan at an early age, she 
lived with an uncle who has hostile toward the Christians. 
She was secretly baptized and henceforward gave herself 
entirely to God, devoting her time to prayer, to the practice 
of austerities and kindly deeds. She fled from her uncle's 
rage to La Prairie, where, after a chaste, austere, and saintly 
life, she died as she had lived, with the holy names of Jesus 




LILY OF THE MOHAWKS 



THE FRENCH IN AMERICA 



67 



and Mary upon her lips. Catherine's grave became an object 
of veneration where the rich and poor of every race came 
and knelt to pay her homage. This devotion, rewarded by 
God with miraculous cures, still subsists, and a large cross 
marks the spot where repose the remains of the "Lily of the 
Mohawks." 

91. The Missionaries, the Pioneers of Discovery, Explora- 
tion, and Civilization. The missionaries were the first white 
men to sail on our great rivers and lakes, to admire our mighty 







THE missionary's BLESSING 



cataracts and rapids, to penetrate and traverse our majestic 
forests. 

A Jesuit discovered the salt springs of New York (Father 
Le Moyne, 1654) ; a Franciscan drew attention to the oil 
springs of Pennsylvania (Father de la Roche, 1627) ; a Jesuit 
lay brother first worked the copper mines on Lake Superior; 
the first sugar cane was raised by Jesuits in New Orleans. 
The missionaries introduced the cultivation of wheat and the 
use of the plow. They founded the first schools and the first 
college (Quebec, 1635) and set up the first printing press 
(Father Richard) in the North. 



68 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The pioneer missionaries wrote descriptions of all they had 
seen and experienced and sent them to the superior in France. 
This remarkable series of letters has been collected into 
seventy-five volumes called the "Jesuit Relations" (1610-1691) 
of which there is an English translation edited by Reuben G. 
Thwaites. 

92. First Nuns in New France. The hospital nuns from 
Dieppe opened a public hospital at Quebec. They received into 
it not only the sufferers among the emigrants, but the maimed, 
the sick, and the blind from the numerous tribes between the 
Kennebec and the St. Lawrence. The Ursuline nuns came to 
Quebec (1639) and established a convent into which they re- 
ceived the dusky daughters of the wilderness for religious 
and secular instruction. 

93. Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary in North America. 
The early Spanish explorers came with the banner of Mary; 
the name of the ship of Columbus was St. Mary; the earliest 
shrines were reared under her invocation ; bay and river and 
mountain received the hallowed name ; the first city on the 
mainland that became a bishop's see was St. Mary's. The 
ardent sons of France chose the icy realms of Canada to plant 
the Lilies of France, but its rigors could not chill devotion to 
Mary. Montreal Island saw a city rise with the name of Ville 
Marie. As the missionaries made their way westward, the 
worship of St. Mary marked their path till the great Missis- 
sippi, the River of the Immaculate Conception, bore them down 
toward those Spanish realms where every officer swore to defend 
the Immaculate Conception. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE DUTCH IN AMEEICA 

94. Dutch Maritime Enterprise. While Spain, England, 
and France were exploring and colonizing America, Holland 
was occupied with trade and commerce. The Dutch were the 
merchants for all the neighboring countries. They sent out 
fleets to the East Indies whence they brought back the prod- 
ucts of the tropics. Various trading companies had been 
organized for this purpose, the most important of which was 
the Dutch East India Company (1602). This company sent its 
navigators not only around the Cape of Good Hope, but also 
along the routes of Magellan and Drake across the Pacific to 







HUDSON 'S SHIP, THE HALF MOON 

Australasia. They endeavored, moreover, to shorten these 
routes to Asia by sailing north of Europe. 

Henry Hudson, an Englishman in the service of Holland 
(1609) was sent by the Dutch East India Company to search 
for a northern route around Europe. He sailed from Amster- 
dam in a vessel called the Half Moon. Being stopped by the 
ice, he turned westward and, after a voyage of four months, 
reached America. Sailing along the coast, he entered the 
present New York harbor, where he believed that he had found 
the passage through America to the Pacific. He sailed up the 

69 



70 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

river which now bears his name, as far as the site of Albany, 
and made friends with the Iroquois. At almost the same time, 
Champlain, not a hundred miles away, fought an eventful 
battle with that powerful Indian nation. 

95. Results of Hudson's Voyage. Hudson's report that the 
new country abounded in fur-bearing animals created interest 
in the commercial cities of Holland. Subsequently trading 
posts were established at the present sites of New York (New 
Amsterdam) and Albany (Fort Orange) as early as 1613-1614. 



/ iit'uw ^ ImflrrJtim c'V .h fAiinhat.ar.s- 










•it il.% 



THE TRADING POST AT NEW AMSTERDAM 

Later the Dutch West India Company was formed for the pur- 
pose of trade and colonization in America. Hudson, who had 
hoped to reach China, considered his voyage a failure and 
determined to attempt to go north of America to Asia. This 
time, in the service of England (1610), he passed through the 
entire length of what is now Hudson Strait and entered the 
broad waters of Hudson Bay, where his crew, frightened by 
the Arctic cold and ice, rose in mutiny. They set their great 
captain and his seven-year-old son adrift in an open boat on 
the vast waters of Hudson Bay, leaving them there to perish. 
96. Dutch Motives and Claims. The Dutch were attracted 
to the American shores principally by the promising trade in 



THE DUTCH IN AMERICA 71 

furs with the Indians, and also by the prospects of successful 
colonization. The Dutch laid claim to the land extending 
between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers by right of Hud- 
son's explorations. They called this region New Netherland. 
97. Dutch Claims. The Dutch claims in the New World 
began with the exploration of Henry Hudson (1609). They 
continued with the fur trading voyages and subsequent settle- 
ments in the present state of New York, and ended when, 
in 1674, New Netherland was permanently surrendered to the 
English. Holland still holds in the New World : Dutch Guiana 
in South America, and some of the West Indies — Curacao and 
St. Eustatius. 



CHEONOLOGICAL EEVIEW 
874-1492 

874, Northmen discover Iceland. 

984. Northmen discover Greenland. 

.1002. Leif Ericson discovers America and establishes a 

Norse colony in Vinland. 

1095. The Crusades begin. 

1295. Marco Polo returns from China. 

1435. Columbus is born. 

1440. Printing is invented by Gutenberg at Strassburg. 

1487. Bartholomew Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 

1492-1519 

Ferdinand and Isabella are king and queen of Spain. 
Henry VII, king of England. 
All civilized Euroi^e is Catholic. 

1492. (Aug. 3) Columbus sails from Spain. 

1492. (Oct. 12) Columbus discovers America — explores San 
Salvador, Cuba, Haiti. 

1493. Columbus makes a second voyage — discovers Jamaica, 
Porto Rico, Windward Islands, and establishes a 
Spanish colony at Isabella, Haiti. 

1493. Father Juan Perez offers the first Holy Sacrifice of 
the Mass in America at Isabella, Haiti. 

1493. Pope Alexander VI establishes the line of Demarca- 
tion. 

1494. The first Catholic church is founded at Isabella, Haiti. 
1497. Cabot discovers North America. 

1497. Vasco da Gama doubles the Cape of Good Hope and 
finds a new route to India. 

1498. Columbus makes his third voyage — discovers Trini- 
dad Island and the continent of South America. 

72 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 73 

1498. Cabot makes his second voyage and explores part of 
the North American coast. 

1500. Cabral discovers Brazil and claims it for Portugal. 

1500. Americus Vespucius explores the northeastern coast 
of South America. 

1502. Columbus makes his fourth voyage — discovers Cen- 
tral America and the Isthmus of Panama ; he seeks a 
passage to the Indian Ocean at the Isthmus of 
Panama. 

1502. Las Casas comes to America. 

1504. Isabella dies. (Nov. 26.) 

1504. French fishermen fish for cod on the banks of New- 
foundland. 

1506. Columbus dies. (Ascension day, May 20). 

1509. Henry VIII of England commences his reign. 

1511. Ponce de Leon founds San Juan, Porto Rico. 

1513. Ponce de Leon discovers and claims the peninsula of 
Florida for Spain. 

1513. Balboa discovers the Pacific Ocean and claims it and 
the land bordering on it for Spain. 

1519-1558 

Emperor Charles V, ruler of Germany, Austria, Spain, and Spanish 

America. 

King Henry VIII, King Edward VI, and Queen Mary reign in 

England. 

King Francis I and Henry II rule in France. 

Luther apostatizes. Henry VIII rejects the authority of the pope 

and establishes a state church. Calvin founds Calvinism. Many 

people leave the Koman Catholic Church and become Protestants. 

1519. Cortez conquers Mexico. 

1519-1522. Magellan circumnavigates the globe. 

1524. Verrazano coasts the American shore from Cape Fear 

to Nova Scotia and claims it for France. 
1526. D'Ayllon attempts to found a colony in Virginia. 



74 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

1528, Narvaez leads an unsuccessful expedition to conquer 
Florida. Bishop Juarez and his companions perish. 

1528-1536. De Vaca and his companions cross the continent. 

1531-1536. Pizarro conquers Peru. 

1534-1535. Cartier explores the gulf and river of St. Law- 
rence as far as the site of the present Montreal, 

1536. The bishop of Mexico sets up the first printing press 
in the New World. 

1539. Friar Marcos penetrates New Mexico and discovers 
the Zuni pueblos. 

1539-1542. De Soto sets out for Florida in search of a king- 
dom of gold, discovers the Mississippi River, 1541, 
dies, and is buried in the waters of the river he dis- 
covered. 

1540-1542. Coronado, ]540, leads an expedition to conquer 
Cibola, which is found to be the pueblos of the Zuni 
Indians. He traverses the present New Mexico, dis- 
covering the Colorado River and caiion and entering 
the lands of Colorado and Kansas in search of gold. 

1540-1541. Alarcon explores the Colorado River a great 
distance from the gulf. 

1542. Cabrillo explores the western coast of America as far 
north as Oregon. 

1549. Fathers Tolosa and Cancer receive the crown of 
martj^rdom in Florida — the first martyrs within the 
limits of the present United States. 

1558-1607 

Queen Elizabeth and James I reign in England. 

Francis II, Charles IX, Henry III, and Henry IV reign in France. 

Philip II and Philip III reign in Spain. 

The principal countries of Europe are involved in religious and 

political wars. 

1562. French Huguenots under Ribault make an unsuccess- 
ful attempt to plant a settlement at Port Royal, 
South Carolina. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 75 

1562. John Hawkins begins his slaving voyages. 

1564. The Huguenots under Laudonniere plant a colony in 
Florida. 

1565. Menendez founds St. Augustine, the oldest city in 
the United States proper. 

1570-1573. Father Segura and companions win the crown 
of martyrdom in what is now Virginia. 

1570-1573. Sir Francis Drake makes three plundering voy- 
ages to the West Indies. 

1576. Martin Frobisher attempts to go north of America to 
Asia, 

1577-1580. Sir Francis Drake circumnavigates the globev 

1582. Espejo explores New Mexico. 

1583. Sir Humphrey Gilbert makes an unsuccessful voyage 
to America. He attempts to plant a colony but fails 
and is shipwrecked on his homeward voyage. 

1584-1587. Sir Walter Raleigh fits out and sends three 
expeditions to the New World; he gives glowing 
accounts of the country and its people ; the last two 
are unsuccessful at colonization. 

1585. John Davis attempts to go north of America to Asia. 

1597. Father Corpa and companions are martyred in 
Florida. 

1602. Gosnold explores Massachusetts, names Cape Cod and 
Martha's Vineyard, and shortens the route across the 
Atlantic by more than 1500 miles. 

1603. Champlain, with a company of fur traders, enters 
the St. Lawrence — explores the shores of Nova Scotia. 

1605. Onate founds Santa Fe, New Mexico, the second 
oldest city in the United States proper. 

1605-1610. Port Royal is founded by De Monts, abandoned 
two years later, and is reoccupied, 1610. 

1606. The London and Plymouth Companies are chartered. 

1607. The first permanent English settlement is planted 
under Captain Newport at Jamestown, Virginia. 



PERIOD OF COLONIZATION 

CHAPTER VIII 

THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES ' 
THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA 

98. Extent. The Period of Colonization extends from the 
settlement of Virginia (1607) to the beginning of the Revo- 
lutionary War (1775). During this time the early settlements 
scattered along the Atlantic coast grew into thirteen flourish- 
ing colonies, subject to Great Britain. 

09. Motives and Causes Leading- to Colonization. The prin- 
cipal motives and causes prompting European colonization in 
America were : 

(a) the desire for an extensive empire; 
( h ) love of adventure ; 

(c) desire for wealth and fame; 

(d) overpopulation in parts of Europe; 

((') misgovernment in many European nations; 

(/) a missionary spirit and a desire for religious freedom. 

100. Early English Colonizing Efforts. As the repeated 
attempts of the English at American colonization under Raleigh 
and Gosnold proved unsuccessful, England had not perma- 
nently occupied any part of the American continent when the 
sixteenth century closed. In 1606, however, the great double- 
headed Virginia Company was formed for the purpose of 
encouraging colonization. 

101. The Three Groups of Colonies. The thirteen original 
colonies may be divided into three groups: the Southern, cen- 
tering in Virginia ; the Northern, centering in Massachusetts ; 
and the Middle, with New Ycrk as the center. The colonies 

76 



■^ POMHATANb VIlLAGt 
3 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 77 

may be thus divided not only because of their geographical 
location, but also because the groups differed from each other 
in motives, government, religion, enterprise, and spirit. Each 
group had its own peculiar characteristics and beliefs in regard 
to church, government, and education. 

102. The Founding of Jamestown. The first permanent 
English colony in America was founded in 1607, at Jamestown, 
Virginia, by an expedition sent out by the London Company, 
under the leadership of Christopher Newport. This colony 
was the beginning and future center of that characteristic 
southern life so emphatically distinguished for its aristocratic 
influence on the nation. 

The first Virginia colonists, one hundred and five in number, 
setting out from London on 
the wintry sea, and sailing 
b}^ way of the Canary and 
West Indian Islands, reached 
the capes of the Chesapeake 
Bay, which they named for 
the two sons of James I, Cape 
Charles and Cape Henry. 
Proceeding some thirty miles 
up the James River, they 
founded Jamestown on the jamestown and vicinity 

northern bank of the stream 

(1607). Both river and village were named in honor of the 
English monarch, James I. 

England 's purposes in settling Virginia were financial profit, 
acquisition of territory, and relief for the crowded industrial 
conditions at home. In the Netherlands there had been a 
great increase in the weaving of woolen goods ; and England, 
being one of the best countries for raising sheep, turned many 
of her farms into sheep pastures in order to supply the Dutch 
with wool. Consequently large numbers of men were thrown 
out of work, and great distress became prevalent among the 
laboring classes. How to provide for the unemployed became a 



ROANOKMSL, « 



78 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

difficult problem to which the New World seemed to furnish a 
solution. 

103. Character of the Colonists — Communism a Failure. The 
original settlers of Virginia were, for the most part, idle, 
lawless, and improvident. One-half of them were so-called 
"gentlemen," unaccustomed to labor. They expected to make 
their fortune in the New World and then return home. 

The conditions surrounding the Jamestown colony were un- 
favorable. Malaria lurked in the swamps; the water was bad; 
the heat intense; the Indians hostile. The London Company 
looked for immediate profit, which led to fruitless search 
for gold. The colonists possessed no guiding spirits endowed 
with the proper qualities for undertaking the work of coloniza- 
tion, and the plan under which the colony was founded proved 
impracticable. Each man's labor was for the common benefit; 
each man was fed out of a common store. This took away 
every incentive to individual exertion, and made discipline 
impossible. Under this system of ''communism," as it was 
called, the idle could draw from the common storehouse 
without labor, while the industrious knew that by their toil 
they must feed the idle. Owing to these adverse circumstances, 
half of the little colony had found a grave in the wilderness 
before the end of September, while those remaining were dis- 
couraged and homesick. 

104. John Smith Saves the Colony — His Explorations. Cap- 
tain Newport soon returned to England, and Wingfield, who 
was left in charge of the colony, proved unqualified for the 
difficult position. He was therefore deposed, and the direction 
of matters gradually .fell into the hands of John Smith, a man 
of bold and determined character. Smith compelled the men 
to work, saying, "He who will not labor shall not eat." He 
skillfully obtained food from the Indians for the starving set- 
tlers and introduced the systematic cultivation of corn. He 
drilled the men, repaired the fortifications, and for two years 
was the mainstay of the Jamestown colony, which he undoubt- 
edlv saved from ruin. 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 



79 



While governor of Virginia, Smith made a series of explora- 
tions up Chesapeake Bay and the rivers flowing into it. He 
hoped to find a passage to the Pacific, obtain corn for his 











CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH'S MAP OF VIRGINIA 



people, and make a correct map of Virginia, which wild region 
he thought to be a narrow strip of land between the two 
oceans. In the course of his explorations, Smith was cap- 
tured by the Indians, and. is said to have escaped death by 
means of his quick wit and through the mediation of the 
Indian princess Pocahontas. This princess, the daughter of 
the great Indian chief Powhatan, often visited Jamestown and 
became the loyal friend and kindly benefactress of the colony. 
Samuel Argall, remembered in history for his treacherous 
exploits, on one occasion kidnapped Pocahontas and carried 



80 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

her off to Jamestown, demanding a ransom. Preparations were 
made for war, bat the marriage of the maiden to John Kolfe, 
a Virginia planter, prevented hostilities. During her life at 
Jamestown she was baptized. Pocahontas and her husband 
later went to England, where she was received with great 
favor and styled "Lady Rebecca." When she was about to 
return to the New "World, she died, leaving an only son, 
Thomas, from whom descended the famous orator and states- 
man, John Randolph, and other leading Virginians. 

105. The Starving Time. Two years after the founding of 
Jamestown, another band of five hundred settlers came to 
Virginia. It was composed chiefly of the refuse of English 
jails and the ruffians of the street. Because of an injury. 
Smith went back to England. The Indians, taking advantage 
of his absence, attacked and plundered the colony. Lawless- 
ness, famine, and disease hastened the work of destruction, so 
that at the end of the dreadful winter (1609-1610), known as 
''the starving time," scarcely sixty of the colony, of nearly 
five hundred were left alive. Lord Delaware, the newly ap- 
pointed governor, came to Jamestown (June, 1610) just in 
time to prevent the miserable remnant from setting sail for 
England. Ill health, however, obliged him to leave Jamestown 
the following March. 

106. Communism Abolished — Cultivation of Tobacco. Sir 
Thomas Dale, who succeeded Lord Delaware (1611), was a 
strict disciplinarian, and during the course of the next five 
years he introduced order and new energy into the affairs of 
the colony by abolishing communism. He gave to each settler 
a tract of land. Now even the indolent began to think it worth 
while to get to work. Thieves and mutineers were hanged 
without mercy. Later, the settlers were permitted to buy one 
hundred acres of land, and each farmer was obliged to give 
two and one-half bushels of corn to the public granary. 

Raleigh had introduced tobacco into England, and its use 
soon spread so that a great demand for it arose in Europe. 
The people of Virginia, finding the soil well adapted to its 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COIX)NIES 81 

cultivation, began to raise it in large quantities, and the future 
of Virginia was assured. Tobacco was used in the place of 
coin, and its value was fixed at seventy-five cents a pound. 
The cultivation of this "fragrant weed" provided employment 
for an increased population and stimulated commerce. Tobacco 
cultivation, however, exhausted the soil, and the planters, re- 
quiring immense tracts of land, extended their plantations far 
from each other. It is said that no man could see his neighbor 
without a telescope, or be heard by him without firing a gun. 

107. A Better Class of People. When the Cavaliers came to 
Virginia they added new life to the steadily increasing pros- 
perity of the colony. They acquired great tracts of land on 
which they cultivated tobacco on a large scale. 

The Cavaliers, or Royalists, consisted of the nobility, the 
gentry, and the clergy of England. They had been supporters 
of Charles I during the great civil and religious war in Eng- 
land, and had been defeated by the Puritans, or "Round- 
heads, ' ' as the supporters of Parliament were called. Charles I 
was beheaded, and the Commonwealth followed (1649-1660), 
during which time England was ruled by Cromwell as "Lord 
Protector," and later by his son Richard. Thousands of the 
Cavaliers fled to Virginia to escape persecution by the Puri- 
tans. They molded its history and gave the colony an 
aristocratic character. From them are descended "Washington, 
Monroe, Madison, Marshall, and many other noted men of our 
history. 

108. Indentured Servants — Negro Slaves. To satisfy the 
great demand for cheap labor, convicts and criminals from the 
overcrowded prisons in England, kidnapped children, and un- 
wary English people were sold to Virginia. These "Inden- 
tured Servants" were bound out to labor for a term of years 
(five to seven and upwards), after which they were set free. 

Shiploads of Irish Catholics, persecuted for patriotism and 
religion, were sold into forced service to the American plant- 
ers during Cromwell's rule; moreover, many poor but respect- 
able persons sold themselves in order to secure a new start in 



82 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the world. Thus the honored and the persecuted, the good and 
the refuse of England, contributed toward the population of 
the tirst-born of American states. 

In 1619 the captain of a Dutch vessel sold twenty negroes to 
the colonists. As their labor proved profitable in the culti- 
vation of tobacco, many more M^ere imported. Thus were sown 
the seeds of slavery which resulted in the great Civil War. 

109. First Representative Assembly in America. The London 
Company had appointed a governor to manage the affairs of 
the colony. Since the settlers, however, desired a more rep- 
resentative government, the company appointed Sir George 
Yeardley governor of the colony, and under his direction a 
general assembly, called the "House of Burgesses," convened 
to consider the affairs of the colony (June 30, 1619). The gov- 
ernment was composed of a governor, a council, and two rep- 
resentatives or burgesses from each of the eleven boroughs 
or districts, and was modeled after the English King, House 
of Lords, and House of Commons. This three-fold division fur- 
nished a basis for our present state and national government. 

110. Family Ties. About one hundred young women of good 
reputation were induced by the London Company to embark 
for Virginia, where they were disposed of to the planters as 
wives at the cost of their passage (one hundred and fifty 
pounds of tobacco). Family life now found a place in Virginia, 
and the people became prosperous and contented. 

111. Virg-inia Becomes a Royal Colony. A bloody war 
occurred (1622) between the colonists and the Indians, who 
were led by the brother of Powhatan. This war, together 
with famine and sickness, reduced the number of colonists 
from four thousand to eight hundred and ninety-four. As 
the king disliked the growing republican sentiment of the 
London Company, he made an excuse of this Indian massacre 
to charge the company with failure to protect its colonists. 
Consequently the charter was annulled (1624) and Virginia 
became a royal colony, which it remained until the War of 
the Eevolution. The House of Burgesses, however, continued 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 83 

to exist throughout the colonial period. The king appointed 
the governor and the council; the colony chose the members 
of the House of Burgesses. 

112. The Navigation Acts. The Navigation Acts, passed by 
England, required that : 

(a) colonial commerce be carried on in English vessels; 
(6) certain colonial exports be sent to England; 
(c) colonial imports come from England. 

These acts nearly ruined the trade of Virginia. They greatly 
enriched the colonial trade of England, but embittered the col- 
onists against the mother country and added to the grievances 
which gave rise to the struggle for American independence. 

113. Berkeley's Hard Rule — Bacon's Rebellion. Sir William 
Berkeley's rule as governor was the longest in colonial history 
(1642-1652, 1659-1676). He was a man of ability, and a stal- 
wart upholder of the king, but he was narrow-minded, dis- 
dishonest, and oppressive. He did not believe in popular gov- 
ernment and was hostile to education. In one instance he was 
heard to say, "I thank God that there are no free schools or 
printing, and I hope we shall not have them these hundred 
years." He, like the king, thought that education made the 
people discontented and rebellious against authority. 

When an Indian war broke out on the borders of Maryland, 
Berkeley refused to defend the colony for fear that his fur 
trade with the natives might suffer. Thereupon, Nathaniel 
Bacon, a young lawyer, raised a force and defeated the enemy. 
Because of this action, the governor pronounced him a traitor. 
The people, however, so disliked Berkeley and the aristocratic 
party, that they armed themselves under Bacon, drove the 
governor out of Jamestown, and burned the village (1676). 
In the midst of his success Bacon died, and Berkeley returned 
to Virginia. He at once put to death twenty of Bacon's 
followers and continued to rule the colony in his despotic 
manner, until the king, disgusted with such tyranny, recalled 
him, saying: '"The old fool has taken more lives in that naked 
country than I have taken for the murder of my father." 



84 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



114. Religion — Education — Manners and Customs. The 

colonists of Virginia belonged to the Church of England, and 
originally no one could settle in Virginia unless he acknowl- 
edged the king as head of the church. This shut out many 
Protestants as well as Catholics from the colony, but the laws 
against the latter were especially severe. No Catholic could 
vote, hold office, or be heard in a court of justice. No priest 
was allowed in the colony. 




WILLIAM AND MAKV COLLEGE 



Colonial Virginia was slow in providing educational advan- 
tages. As the government was narrow in its religious prin- 
ciples, it did not favor education. Moreover, the widespread 
population made it impossible to have schools located at con- 
venient distances. Free schools, therefore, were not established 
until 1688. The first college in the colony was the College of 
William and Mary, founded at Williamsburg (1693). 

The Virginians were social, hospitable, and fond of amuse- 
ments, such as fishing, horse racing, fox hunting, and other 
outdoor sports. They resided in large mansions, while their 
slaves lived apart in small cabins. They had no large towns, 
but lived on plantations, and engaged in raising tobacco, corn, 
and sweet potatoes. During the one hundred years intervening 
between Bacon's Rebellion and the Revolution, Virginia pros- 
pered greatly and became the most populous as well as the 
richest of the English colonies. 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 



85 



THE SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND 

115. The Maryland Grant — First Settlement. Unlike Vir- 
ginia, which was settled by a company, Maryland was founded 
and practically owned by a lord proprietor. George Calvert, 
the first Lord Baltimore, a prominent English Catholic, who de- 
sired to found a colony in America which might serve as a ref- 
uge for the persecuted Catholics of England, obtained from 
Charles I a grant of the unoccupied land north of the Potomac. 
He died, however, before his ..^e=- 

patent had received the _ "^^^^- "^^^ 

royal signature, and his 
rights descended to his son, 
Cecilius Calvert, the second 
Lord Baltimore, who inher- 
ited not only his noble fa- 
ther's titles, but also his 
benevolent views. Thinking 
that it would be to the in- 
terest of the colony for him 
to remain in England, Ce- 
cilius appointed his younger 
brother, Leonard, governor 
of the new colony. 

The Catholics of England 
had been cruelly persecuted 
since the time of the Refor- 
mation, and longed for a 
refuge where they might practice their religion in peace. They 
therefore gladly enlisted under the banner of the Calverts, 
who themselves, in the face of intolerant laws and still more 
intolerant sentiments of the time, had become conscientious 
Roman Catholics, at the peril of station, honors, and office. 

The little band of Maryland immigrants, imbued with a true 
colonizing spirit, brought with them their families, servants, a 
considerable body of artisans and laborers, and four Jesuits, 




GEORGE CALVERT 



86 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

numbering in all about three hundred. They sailed from Cowes, 
England, in the ArJc and the Dove on St. Cecilia's day, and, 
after a stormy four months' voyage, landed on the northern 
bank of the Potomac on the festival of the Annunciation. 
Father White celebrated Holy Mass in honor of the day in an 
Indian wigwam on the very soil where Spanish Jesuits, half a 
century before, had offered the same holy sacrifice for the first 
time in that wild region. A large cross was erected, and St. 
Mary's was then solemnly founded near the sites of the future 
Mount Vernon, and the future political center of the nation, 
the capital city of "Washington. 

At the request of King Charles I, the new colony received 
the name of Maryland in honor of his Queen, Henrietta, Maria, 
the Catholic daughter of Henry IV of France. The newly 
founded town was called St. Mary's in honor of the Blessed 
Virgin Mary, on whose festival the colonists had landed. Mary- 
land was thus founded (1634) at St. Mary's on jthe Potomac 
River by English Catholics. 

116. Extent and Significance of the Maryland Grant. The 
country originally granted to Lord Baltimore was located 
south of the fortieth parallel and embraced, besides the pres- 
ent states of Maryland and Delaware, large portions of Penn- 
sylvania, and New Jersey. Unlike Virginia and Pennsylvania, 
Maryland was given, by its charter, a western boundary — 
the meridian of the source of the Potomac. Maryland had 
as its southern boundary, the southern bank of the Potomac 
to a certain point whence the line extended across the bay 
and the peninsula to the ocean. Many disputes arose between 
Maryland and Virginia because of this southern boundary and 
because of the fact that Virginia controlled the entrance of 
the river, while Maryland controlled the river itself. 

The patent granted Lord Baltimore, which had been prepared 
by his own hand, was the most liberal ever given any British 
subject. It showed, as Bancroft observes, that "its author 
deserves to be ranked among the wise and benevolent law- 
givers of all ages." It made religious freedom the basis of 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 87 

the state, and secured to the colonists a large share in their 
government. The proprietor was an almost independent sov- 
ereign. He could coin money, grant titles of nobility, create 
courts, appoint judges, pardon criminals, and summon an 
assembly of representatives. Enactments of the assembly 
needed only his signature, not that of the king, to become laws. 
Moreover, his office was hereditary in his family. One limita- 
tion of his proprietary power should, however, be noted : he 
could make laws and collect taxes only with the consent of 
the people. Hence, Maryland had its assemblies from the 
beginning. As an acknowledgment of his allegiance to the 
crown, the proprietor was required to pay annually two Indian 
arrows and one-fifth of all the gold and silver that might be 
found in the province. 

117. St. Mary's and the Indians. Maryland, unlike most of 
the other colonies, never had any serious Indian troubles. The 
colonists originally paid the natives for their land, treated them 
with kindness and justice, and endeavored to convert and civ- 
ilize them. The savages in turn, won by the gentle and friendly 
manners of the strangers, readily gave them every assistance 
in their power. Fathers Andrew White and John Altham, and 
the lay brothers, John Knowles and Thomas Gervase, joined 
by others of their Order, established missions • among the 
Indians. The effect of their devoted zeal was soon manifest. 
Old and young responded to their efforts. 

118. Prosperity of St. Mary's. The settlers of St. Mary's, 
unlike those of Jamestown, immediately began to build and 
plant. A crop of corn was gathered the first autumn ; the 
Indians taught the colonists how to prepare it for food and 
how to trap game. Before winter, all were comfortably shel- 
tered. Bancroft says: "Within six months the colony had 
advanced more than Virginia had done in as many years. 
The persecuted and the unhappy thronged to the domains of 
the benevolent prince. Affections expanded in the wilderness. 
The planter's whole heart was in his family; his pride, in the 



88 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

children that bloomed around him, making the solitudes laugh 
with innocence and gayety. " 

119. Claiborne's Rebellion. William Claiborne, a Virginian, 
with his adherents, refused to submit to the authority of Lord 
Baltimore, in whose domain he had established a trading post. 
When he was driven out by Calvert he fled to England, but 
soon returned, and with the aid of Puritans, who had been 
expelled from Virginia and kindly received in Maryland, at- 
tacked St. Mary's. He expelled Governor Calvert and took 
possession of the government. Lawlessness and intolerance 
now distressed the country for more than a year. Governor 
Calvert, with a force of his colonists, finally drove out the 
rebels and peace was restored. Claiborne, who has been called 
"The evil genius of the colony," troubled the settlement for 
ten years. During this period many of the Maryland Cath- 
olics were persecuted and the altars of their religion over- 
thrown. The Jesuit Fathers, among whom was the aged 
Father White, were seized, put in irons, and shipped to loath- 
some dungeons in England. 

120. Religious Toleration — Toleration Act. The distinctive 
feature of the Maryland colony under the Calverts was re- 
ligious toleration. St. Mary's was the refuge of Catholics 
persecuted in England, and of Protestants who fled from re- 
ligious intolerance in the other colonies. Throughout Mary- 
land religion had its peaceful sway, in the wigwam of the 
Indian as well as in the town of St. Mary's. Bancroft "says: 
"From France, Germany, Holland, Sweden, Finland, and Pied- 
mont, the children of misfortune sought protection under the 
tolerant scepter of the Roman Catholic." 

After the execution of Charles I, and the triumph of the 
Puritan party in England, the Maryland colonists, fearing 
religious persecution, determined to place religious freedom on 
as secure a basis as possible. Accordingly the Maryland as- 
sembly passed (1649) the celebrated Toleration Act, which pro- 
vided that all Christian denominations should be protected in 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 89 

Maryland. This was the first enactment of the kind in the 
United States and merited for the colony the name "Land of 
the Sanctuary." 

When the Protestants obtained a majority in the Maryland 
assembly, they repealed the Toleration Act (1654), excluded 
Catholics from the Assembly, refused them the protection of the 
law, and forbade the practice of their worship. The result was 
a civil war. For three years the victory alternated. At one 
time there existed two governments, one Protestant, the other 
Catholic. Finally, Lord Baltimore was entirely deprived 
(1691) of his proprietary rights, and Maryland became a royal 
province. The Catholics were disfranchised ; the Church of 
England was established by law, and the capital was removed 
to the center of Protestant influence, which was now called 
Annapolis. At length (1714) the fifth Lord Baltimore (Bene- 
dict), renounced his Catholic faith and was restored to his pro- 
prietary rights. Maryland remained a proprietary colony until 
the rule of the sixth Lord Baltimore was ended by the Decla- 
ration of Independence. The Catholics, however, did not re- 
cover their rights until after the Revolution. 

121. The Mason and Dixon's Line. In order to dispose of 
much ill feeling between Maryland and Pennsylvania, arising 
from boundary disputes, the Mason and Dixon's Line was 
established (1763-67). This east- west boundary line, fixed by 
two eminent surveyors, Charles Mason and Jeremiah Dixon, 
was adopted by Maryland and Pennsylvania as limiting their 
respective territories. It was later extended westward and 
became noted in history as marking the division between the 
free and the slave states. 

122. Religion — Customs — Education. The Maryland people 
were very much like the Virginians except in religious mat- 
ters. Like them, they were social and hospitable ; sought 
amusements in outdoor sports (horse racing, fox hunting, 
etc.) ; had few towns, lived on broad plantations, and raised 
tobacco as a staple crop. They cultivated at an early date 



90 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Indian corn and the sweet potato, and caught oysters and shot 
wild ducks in the waters of the bay. Negro slaves performed 
the work on the plantations. They lived apart in detached 
huts, although, in Catholic families, they were treated as 
members of the household. 

The Catholics of Maryland brought with them their learned 
Jesuit teachers, who instructed their children, as well as those 
of the red man, in the essentials of religious and secular learn- 
ing. From the repeal of the Toleration Act until the Revolu- 




EARLY ANNAPOLIS 



tion, the instruction of Catholic youth by Catholic teachers was 
prohibited. The Jesuits, notwithstanding, secretly maintained 
two schools for boys. However, there were very few schools 
of any kind before the Revolution. The earliest was King 
William's School, now St. John's College, which was estab- 
lished (1694) at Annapolis by Nicholson, the second royal 
governor appointed by William and Mary. 

123. Three Notable Facts. Among the thirteen original col- 
onies Maryland was the first proprietary colony, the first self-gov- 
erning colony, and the first colony to grant religious freedom. 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 91 

THE SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS 

124. The Carolina Grant. Charles II of England, noted for 
his liberality in giving away American lands, granted (1663) 
the fertile territory stretching from Virginia to Florida and 
extending westward to the Pacific to Lord Clarendon and 
seven associates. These noblemen had either assisted the king 
in the recovery of his throne or befriended him in his exile 
during Cromwell's supremacy. 

The French, a century previous, had given the name Caro- 
lina to their attempted settlements in this region in honor of 
Charles IX of France. The Carolina proprietors retained the 
name out of compliment to Charles II of England. 

125. The Grand Model — The Carolinas as Royal Colonies. 
A code of laws, called the ''Grand Model," was drawn up for 
the government of the province of Carolina by the English 
philosopher, Locke. It divided the territory into provinces of 
nearly half a million acres, each to be governed by a land- 
grave, with a whole order of nobles under him. No settler 
was to vote unless he owned fifty or more acres of land. The 
tillers of the soil were to be serfs, and inferior to these were 
to be the slaves. In short, the "Grand Model" was to be a 
revival of the feudal system which had long since ceased to 
exist in the country that was now trying to bring it into 
existence again. Its only good feature was that it guaranteed 
religious liberty to all. The Church of England was, however, 
established by law. 

The Grand Model proved to be a grand failure. It was 
aristocratic, giving all the power to the nobles and barons, 
leaving the people in a condition of serfdom; the people, 
however, were determined to govern themselves. They de- 
cidedly objected to the Model; consequently, its regulations 
were never fully and fairly put into effect, although it re- 
remained nominally in force for more than twenty years. 
Finally it was set aside by Parliament, which purchased the 
rights of the proprietors and divided the province into North 



92 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Carolina and South Carolina. From this time (1729) until the 
Revolution (1775) the Carolinas remained two distinct royal 
colonies. 

126. North Carolina Settled. North Carolina was first 
settled (1653) at Albemarle Sound by immigrants from Vir- 
ginia under the leadership of Roger Greene. It was later 
called Albemarle in honor of the Duke of Albemarle, one of 
the proprietors. Among the people who first came to North 
Carolina were many rough characters ; but there were also 
many industrious small farmers, and Quakers and Puritans, 
who had been expelled from other colonies. A number of 
settlers from the West Indies, under George Yeamans, estab- 
lished themselves (1664) near the mouth of the Cape Fear 
River, the present site of Wilmington, and with some New 
Englanders formed the Clarendon Colony. 

127. Growth of the Colony. The growth of North Carolina 
was, at first, slow. The settlement at Albemarle made little 
progress; that at Clarendon was abandoned. After 1700, 
however, large numbers of French and Germans, and some 
years later many Irish, Scotch, and Swiss, emigrated to the 
colony. From this time on the population grew so fast that, 
during the Revolution, North Carolina ranked fourth among the 
thirteen original colonies. This population, however, lived 
widely scattered along the coast or in the roadless wilds and 
woods, either raising grain and live stock on small farms, or en- 
gaged in cutting timber, making tar and turpentine, hunting the 
bear, and trapping the beaver. These conditions were not con- 
ducive to the growth of industrial centers ; hence, early North 
Carolina had no towns, and in power and importance she could 
not compare with her northern sister colonies. The people, 
nevertheless, loved their beautiful summer land. Cut off from 
the rest of the world, happy and contented in their isolation, 
they formed a sturdy colony, tolerant in religious matters, and 
marked by a spirit of independence. They were not free, how- 
ever, from trouble with the Indians. A powerful tribe called 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 



93 



Tuscaroras attacked and massacred (1711) hundreds of colo- 
nists. After two years of warfare the savages were defeated. 
They then joined their kinsmen of New York, known before 
this time as the Five Nations, and after this as the Six Nations. 







CHARLESTON 



THE FOUNDING OF SOUTH CAROLINA 

128. Industrial Growth. South Carolina was first settled 
(1670) on the Ashley River by immigrants from England 
under the leadership of William Sayle and Joseph West. This 
settlement originally known as the Carteret Colony, was re- 
moved after a few years 
(1680) to a better situation 
at the junction of the Ashley 
and Cooper rivers. Thus 
was laid the foundation of 
Charleston, the fifth largest 
city in colonial America. The 
only larger cities were Phil- 
adelphia, New York, Boston, 
and Baltimore. 

The South Carolina people 
early engaged in agricultural 
pursuits. They soon ascer- 
tained that the soil and the 
climate were suitable for the 
growing of all the plants of the Old World. Plantations of 
pears, olives, and mulberry trees soon extended along the 
Cooper and Santee rivers. Rice was introduced from Mada- 
gascar and was found well adapted to the lowlands; indigo 
fiourished, and later cotton became a most important staple. 
South Carolina traded extensively with the Indians in furs, 
and had a large export trade to the northern colonies and the 
West Indies in forest products — timber, pitch, and turpen- 
tine. The result of the profitable commerce in rice and indigo 



^J'H 






• ST AUGUSTINE v 



94 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



caused South Carolina to grow rapidly in both population and 
wealth, and Charleston soon became the metropolis of the 
South. Thither came a liberty-seeking stream of immigrants 
from Holland, Germany, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and 
France. The French Huguenots came to Carolina in such num- 
bers that in Charleston alone there were sixteen thousand at 
one time. They, as well as the other immigrants, brought with 

them mechanical skill and 
mercantile enterprise, and 
their influence greatly pro- 
moted the industrial pros- 
perity of South Carolina. 

129. Slave Labor Profit- 
able — Piracy. Negro slaves 
from Barbadoes were brought 
to the Carteret Colony with- 
in a year after its founding 
(1671). The heat of the sum- 
mer made labor in the ma- 
larial atmosphere of the for- 
est and the rice swamps 
fatal to the white man. 
Hence, negroes were im- 
ported to South Carolina in 
greater numbers than to any 
other colony. At the time 
of the Revolution they con- 
stituted nearly two-thirds of 
the population. South Caro- 
lina differed from all the other colonies in that it depended 
largely upon slave labor from the beginning. 

At the time when the Carolinas were being founded the sea 
in the vicinity of the West Indies was rendered unsafe by hun- 
dreds of pirates who had set up their strongholds on some of 
the West Indies and the neighboring American coast. 




BLACKBEARD 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OP COLONIES 95 

Robert Thatch, commonly called Blackbeard, was perhaps 
the most noted of these pirates. On one occasion he obliged 
the governor of Charleston to pay a specified ransom for 
some captured passengers on pain of their instant death. 
Thatch was killed in a fight with Virginian ships (1718), The 
English employed a sea captain, named "William Kidd, to com- 
mand a vessel against the pirates, but after getting out to sea, 
Kidd and his men turned pirates themselves, and soon became 
the most famous sea-robbers ever known. Kidd roved the sea 
for a year or two, amassing great treasures, a portion of which 
he was said to have buried somewhere on Gardner's Island at 
the east end of Long Island. He was at length captured, taken 
to London, tried, and hanged (1701). At first the people of 
Carolina engaged in trade with the pirates, but when the latter 
began to capture ships trading with Charleston, the Carolina 
people joined in the war against them; and finally the pirates 
were defeated and their power broken (1730). 

130. Religion — Government. The Church of England was 
the established church of South Carolina, but there was little 
or no religious persecution. The people of South Carolina, 
like those of North Carolina, strenuously resisted every attempt 
of the proprietors to introduce the Grand Model. They chose 
their own assembly from the beginning, and eventually elected 
their own governors, in the name of the king. 

131. Manners — Customs. The Carolina people were charac- 
terized by genial manners, culture, and thrift. Among them, 
however, were men of turbulence, who carried on a double 
slave trade — one of importation from Africa, the other of ex- 
portation to the West Indies. Slave labor was employed 
exclusively. The work on the rice and indigo plantations was 
directed by overseers. 

The rich planters, as a rule, resided in comfortable and 
handsome houses at Charleston. Life in that town, with its 
theaters, balls, and dinner parties, was gay, although little 
attention was paid to education. 



96 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



THE SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA 

132. James E. Oglethorpe — Georgia Founded. James E. 
Oglethorpe was a man prominent in the public life of England 
for more than half a century. In his capacity as chairman of 
a Parliamentary committee, whose duty it was to investigate 
the prisons, he became acquainted with the abuses of the 
English prisons for debtors. Moved by the misery of the un- 
fortunate inmates, he con- 
ceived the idea of founding a 
colony in America where the 
most deserving of them could 
begin life anew. He formed 
a company of men known as 
"The Trustees," and with 
their aid secured the release 
from prison of a number of 
the most worthy inmates. He 
obtained (1732) from George 
II a grant of the country be- 
tween the Savannah and Al- 
tamaha rivers as far west- 
ward as the Pacific, and pre- 
pared to plant his colony. 
Georgia was settled in 1733 
at Savannah by a company 
of discharged English prisoners (about thirty -five families, one 
hundred and twenty-five persons) under the authority of "The 
Trustees" and the leadership of James Oglethorpe. Transpor- 
tation, food, and land were given the settlers in return for labor 
and military service. The new colony was named Georgia for 
George II of England, and the settlement took its name from 
that of the river near which the little cabins of the settlers 
were first reared. Georgia, the last of the Southern Group, 
as also the last of the famous thirteen original colonies in order 




JAMES E. OGLETHORPE 



THE SOUTHERN GROUP OF COLONIES 97 

of foundation, was settled the year after the birth of George 
Washington. 

133. Object — Progress. Oglethorpe's object in planting 
Georgia was threefold: to found a military barrier between 
the Carolinas and the troublesome Spaniards in Florida; to 
offer a refuge to persecuted Protestants in Europe; and to 
transfer the inmates of English debtor prisons to the Ameri- 
can wilds, where they might make a new start in life. 

The discharged English prisoners proved poor material for 
the founding of a colony. Oglethorpe's philanthropic plans 
were on the point of being wrecked, when a number of indus- 
trious German Protestants, a colony of Swiss and Moravians, 
and a hardy band of thrifty Scotch mountaineers emigrated 
to Georgia and made possible the final success of the settle- 
ment. The progress of the settlement was hampered from the 
very beginning by certain restrictive regulations, which dis- 
tinguished Georgia from all her sister colonies. The govern- 
ment was exclusively in the hands of the trustees, and each 
settler was given but a limited tract of land, which must de- 
scend to a male heir. Moreover, the colonists complained 
because the importation of intoxicating liquors was forbidden, 
thus cutting off a promising commerce with the West Indies; 
and because slavery was prohibited. 

134. War with Florida — Georgia and the Indians. When 
war broke out between Spain and England (1739), Oglethorpe 
(1740) attacked St. Augustine but failed to take it. The 
Spaniards attempted to retaliate two years later by sending 
an unsuccessful expedition into Georgia. 

The Georgians cultivated friendly relations with the Indi- 
ans. They procured their land by purchase. The various 
tribes of the Muskoki family sent their chiefs to Savannah to 
make an alliance with the colony. The savages were pleased 
with the noble and commanding appearance of Oglethorpe and 
his frank, kindly manner of dealing with them, and trusted in 
his promises. Subsequently a profitable trade was established 



98 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

with the tribes as far west as the Mississippi. Rice was the 
main staple crop. The only town was the village of Savannah, 
from which Indian trails led to the widely-spread plantations 
and trading posts. 

135. Georgia a Royal Colony. Oglethorpe desired to estab- 
lish a model colony. He considered slavery a horrible crime, 
and the use of ardent drinks the cause of the debt and misery 
from which the colonists had fled, but the people were loud in 
their complaints against the restrictive regulations and the 
trustees eventually repealed them. Georgia now entered upon 
a flourishing commerce and soon became a typical southern 
colony. Oglethorpe, however, returned to England (1743) and 
the trustees, unsuccessful in their attempts at government, 
gladly surrendered the charter to the crown (1752). Georgia 
thus became a royal province and remained such until the time 
of the Revolution. James Oglethorpe alone of all the colony 
builders lived until after the Revolution, and saw the thirteen 
original colonies become an independent nation. 

136. Religion. The Church of England was the established 
form of worship, but toleration was granted to all except 
Catholics. John Wesley, the founder of Methodism, came to 
Georgia in 1735 and introduced the Methodist Church into 
America. He failed in his original intention of converting the 
Indians and, becoming unpopular in the colony, returned to 
England after a period of two years. George Whitefield 
founded an orphan home near Savannah. He was an asso- 
ciate of Wesley, an eloquent preacher, and an ardent advocate 
of slavery. The restriction of the employment and importation 
of slaves was removed largely through his influence. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE MIDDLE GEOUP OF COLONIES 
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK 

137. New York Settled. The Dutch had laid claim to the 
land between the Delaware and Connecticut rivers by right 
of the exploration of Henry Hudson. They now began to make 
good this claim by establishing trading posts (1613-1614), one 
near the present site of Albany, New York, and one on Man- 
hattan Island. These settlements were made, however, with- 
out any serious attempt at colonization. The first permanent 
settlements were established in 1623, on Manhattan Island and 
at Fort Orange (Albany), by some Dutch families sent out by 
the Dutch West India Company. The object of Dutch coloni- 
zation was trade. 

The West India Company sent (1626) Peter Minuit with a 
band of settlers to reinforce the small trading post which had 
been established on Manhattan Island. Minuit bought the 
island from the Indians for about twenty-four dollars' worth 
of trinkets, and founded New Amsterdam, now New York 
City. 

138. The Patroon System. The colony at first made little 
progress. To attract settlers to the new colony, the West 
India Company established (1629) the "patroon system." This 
gave to any member of the company who within four years 
brought into the colony fifty adult settlers an extensive grant 
of land. The land was to be fairly bought from the Indians. 
Such great land owners were called patroons. The patroon 
was required to pay the emigrant's passage from Holland, 
to stock a farm with all necessary animals and implements, and 
to provide a minister of the gospel and a schoolmaster, and 

99 



100 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



was forbidden to engage in the fur trade with the Indians. In 
return the emigrant bound himself not to leave the land of 
the patroon without permission; to give the patroon the first 
opportunity to buy any grain or product that he might have 
to sell; to pay rent, and to bring all disputes about property, 
etc., to the patroon 's court. 

As a matter of fact, few patroonships were established. 
Later, however, both the Dutch and the English granted large 
estates, or manors, which were worked by 
tenants. In this way colonial New York be- 
came a sort of landed aristocracy. Some of 
these estates (for instance the Van Rensse- 
laer's) retained certain privileges until late 
in the nineteenth century. The anti-rent 
difficulties arising between landlord and 
tenant during the presidency of Tyler grew 
out of such titles. 

The patroon system did not tend toward 
individual prosperity or increase of popula- 
tion. Like other plans for colonization by 
which the settlers were made dependent on 
large landowners, as in Carolina and Geor- 
gia, it gave little opportunity to the mass of 
the colonists and hence proved a failure. The 
system was later modified. The profitable 
fur trade was thrown open to all comers, and 
land was granted in small quantities on payment of an annual 
rent. The result was an influx of population from many Euro- 
pean countries as well as from the neighboring colonies, so that 
at one time eighteen languages were spoken in New Amster- 
dam, and by 1664 the population of New Netherland had in- 
creased in number to ten thousand. 

139. The Dutch and the Indians. From the time of Hudson's 
voyage friendly relations existed between the Dutch traders 
and the powerful Iroquois Indians of the upper Hudson and 




DUTCH MAIDEN 



THE MIDDLE GROUP OP COLONIES 101 

Mohawk valleys. Consequently the Dutch fur traders could 
easily secure great quantities of valuable peltries from other 
Indian tribes through the hands of the friendly Iroquois in 
return for blankets, utensils, firearms, gin, and rum, so highly 
prized by the savages. The Algonquin tribes on the lower 
Hudson, however, were provoked to hostility through the 
cruelty of Governor Kieft. Terrible Indian wars ensued, dur- 
ing which the colony was nearly ruined before peace was 
restored. 

140. The Colony Under Dutch Rule. New Netherland was 
ruled (1626-64) by four Dutch governors. Peter Minuit, the 
founder of New Amsterdam, was recalled after a period of six 
years; Wouter Van Twiller, incompetent alid indolent, was 
succeeded by William Kieft, who, on account of his temper 
was called "William the Testy." He was an embezzler, noted 
for his cruel treatment of the Indians, and the severity of his 
rule. He was, however, kind to Father Jogues. After a period 
of misgovernment he was recalled. On his way to Holland, his 
ship was wrecked on the coast of Wales and the deposed gov- 
ernor was among the lost. Peter Stuyvesant was the last and 
most able of the four Dutch governors. He was known as 
"Peter the Headstrong" on account of his stubbornness, and 
"Old Silverleg" because he had a wooden leg bound with 
bands of silver. A strange mixture of good and evil, he has 
been well described as a noble, honest, headstrong, generous, 
kindly, conscientious, eager, lion-hearted, old soldier. Withal 
he was a strong defender of the colony, and soon readjusted 
all difficulties. Being extremely despotic, he opposed all self- 
governing ideas, but finally so far yielded to the demands of 
the people that he allowed the town to elect delegates. When 
these delegates were elected, however, he refused them all 
power and the enraged people began to covet the political priv- 
ileges of their English neighbors. 

141. England Lays Claim to New Netherland. After allow- 
ing the Dutch to occupy for half a century the territory they 



102 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



had discovered, England, jealous of the prosperity and advan- 
tages of her Dutch commercial rival, and wishing to have a 
strong and unbroken line of colonies along the Atlantic coast, 
asserted her claims to New Netherland by virtue of the Cabot 
voyages. Accordingly Charles II granted the land between 
the Delaware and Connecticut rivers to his brother, the Duke 
of York (later James II of England). An English fleet of 
three vessels, carrying troops, anchored in the harbor of New 
York (1664). The English force exceeded that at Governor 
Stuyvesant's command. Moreover, the colonists welcomed the 
opportunity to exchange the illiberal Dutch rule for better 
government under the English. They therefore surrendered 




NEW YORK IN 1673 



New Amsterdam and with it the whole of New Netherland 
without resistance. New Amsterdam and New Netherland 
were now called New York, and Fort Orange was named 
Albany, in honor of the proprietor, who was Duke of York 
and Albany. In the course of a war between England and 
Holland, a Dutch fleet recaptured New York in 1673. It was, 
however, returned to the English by treaty in the following 
year. 

142. The Colony Under English Rule — Leisler's Rebellion. 
With its conquest by England, New York became a proprietary 
colony, which it remained until its proprietor, the Duke of 
York, became king of England as James II, when it became a 
royal colony. James II did not favor a popular government 



THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 103 

and consequently the people were not granted the privileges 
they had anticipated. Nicolls, the first English governor, ruled 
wisely; his successor, Lovelace, ruled mildly; and Thomas 
Dongan (1683-88), a Catholic of liberal views and tireless 
energy, called the first assembly of New York and granted 
the famous Dongan charter. When the Duke of York became 
king, he deprived the colony of the representative government 
granted by Dongan, and annexed New York to New England, 
which was under the tyrannical rule of Andros. 

The later royal governors, by their oppressive rule, exas- 
perated the people and when James II (1689) was driven from 
the throne, the New York colonists, headed by Jacob Leisler, 
established a government of their own. William III (1691) 
sent over a new governor, and Leisler was tried for treason 
and executed. The assembly was restored, and from this time 
until the Revolutionary War New York retained its popular 
assembly. 

143. Negro Plot. Several mysterious fires occurred in New 
York City (1741). Catholics and negroes were accused of 
having plotted to burn the town. Bigotry was at its height ; 
four white people and eighteen negroes were hanged; fourteen 
negroes were burned at the stake, and seventy transported to 
the West Indies. It was later proved that no such plot as was 
suspected had existed. 

144. Relig-ion — Education — Manners and Customs. Under 
Dutch rule the established religion was that of the Dutch 
Reformed Church and there was little persecution. Under 
English rule the Episcopalian religion prevailed, and, except 
during Dongan 's regime, Catholicism was proscribed. Cath- 
olics were denied the right of suffrage, and priests were 
ordered under the penalty of imprisonment and death to leave 
the colony. In spite of this, the first Holy Mass in New York 
was celebrated (1665) at the request of the Onondaga 
Indians by Father Dablon on the site of the present city of 
Syracuse. 



104 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



But little progress was made for a long time in education, 
although during Dongan's rule a Catholic College was opened 
in New York City. 

The Dutch were thrifty, honest, and hospitable. Their chief 
occupations were fur trading and farming. The dress and fur- 
niture of the Dutch were extremely simijle. They used no 
carpets, but had white sanded floors. They breakfasted at 
dawn, dined at eleven, and retired at sunset. Their houses, 
built of wood, with gable ends of colored brick from Holland, 
had many windows and doors. Country houses were called 




A DUTCH TAYEliN 



"'Boweries." Instead of clocks and watches they had hour 
glasses and sun-dials. Sleighing, skating, and coasting were 
first introduced into the colonies by the Dutch. 

Though Holland had failed as a nation in colonizing Amer- 
ica, the colonial Dutch settlers were a sturdy, whole-souled 
race, and their influence was indelibly impressed for good on 
the part of the country settled by them. The Dutch main- 
tained their simple life and their language and customs for 
two hundred years. Not until after the Revolution did they 
lose their identity and their language. 



THE MIDDLE GROUP OP COLONIES 105 

THE SETTLEMENT OP NEW JERSEY 

145. Land Grant and First Settlement. New Jersey, orig- 
inally included in the territory claimed by the Dutch, was early 
occupied by both the Dutch and the Swedes. The Swedes 
crossed from their settlement in Delaware, and the Dutch from 
New Amsterdam. The Swedish posts were soon conquered by 
the Dutch and incorporated with their own colony. After the 
conquest of New Netherland (1664) the Duke of York gave 
the southern part, lying between the Delaware Kiver and the 
ocean, to two of his favorites — Lords Berkeley and Carteret — 
and called it New Jersey in honor of Sir George Carteret, who 
had distinguished himself as governor of the island of Jersey 
in the English Channel. 

The first permanent English settlement in New Jersey was 
made in 1665 at Elizabethtown by a company of immigrants 
led by Philip Carteret (cousin of Sir George Carteret). Eliza- 
bethtown was named for Lady Carteret. 

146. East and West Jersey — Government. The New Jersey 
province was finally divided into East and West Jersey (1674) 
and was for many years known as ' ' The Jerseys. ' ' The Jerseys 
eventually passed into the hands of a party of Quakers, among 
whom was William Penn. There was much confusion over 
land titles, until the proprietors, wearied about the rents and 
other matters, sold (1702) their claims to the English crown. 
Queen Anne united the Jerseys under the jurisdiction of the 
governor of New York. In 1738, New Jersey was made a 
royal province, which it continued to be until the Revolution. 
Colonial New Jersey, however, had its own assembly and was 
tolerant in religious matters. New Jersey was a land of 
farmers. The growth of Philadelphia and New York furnished 
markets for their agricultural products, 

Princeton, the fourth college founded in America, was 
opened in 1746, at Newark. It was transferred (1752) to 
Princeton, where it is still located. 



106 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

THE SETTLEMENT OF DELAWARE 

147. Origin of New Sweden — First Settlement. The little 
state of Delaware was originally included in the Dutch claim. 
It was also a part of the Maryland territory granted to Lord 
Baltimore. It owed its origin to the ambition of Gustavus 
Adolphus, King of Sweden. This monarch desired to establish 
a Swedish colonial empire on the banks of the Delaware, which 
territory he pronounced "the jewel of his kingdom." The 
death of Gustavus Adolphus, however, delayed the execution 
of the project. 

At length the Swedes, strongly attracted to the American 
seaboard by the prospects of a flourishing trade, laid claim to 
a tract of land on the Delaware on the assumption that unoc- 
cupied land is common property. A Swedish-Dutch corpora- 
tion, called the South Company, was formed, and Peter Minuit, 
the early governor of New Netherland, was employed to lead a 
Swedish colony to America. In this way Delaware was per- 
manently settled in 1638, near the present site of Wilmington, 
by a band of some fifty Swedes. They built a fort and named 
it Christina after the young queen of Sweden. 

148. Government — Class of Settlers. The Dutch looked upon 
the Swedes as intruders; Peter Stuyvesant conquered (1655) 
the Swedish settlements and New Sweden was added to New 
Netherland. The Dutch held New Sweden until the Duke of 
York acquired it as a part of New Netherland. He in turn 
sold it (1682) to William Penn, who desired an outlet to the 
sea for his colony, Pennsylvania. Penn called the province 
"The Three Lower Counties on the Delaware," or "The 
Territories. ' ' 

Delaware at first sent its representatives to the Pennsylvania 
assembly, but was later allowed a separate legislature by 
William Penn. When the Revolution broke out, the Three 
Lower Counties declared themselves a free and independent 
state, taking the name of Delaware. 



THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 107 

THE SETTLEMENT OP PENNSYLVANIA 

149. The Pennsylvania Grant. The control of New Jersey 
by Quakers, among whom was William Penn, led directly to 
the settlement of Pennsylvania. William Penn was not satis- 
fied with his interest in New Jersey and began to look wistfully 
toward the fair lands beyond the Delaware where he might 
found a Quaker colony according to his own ideas. He ob- 
tained from Charles II (1681) a grant of forty thousand square 
miles of territory west of the Delaware. Contrary to the 
modest wishes of the proprietor, the king gave to this vast 
territory the name of Pennsylvania, Penn's Woodlands. When 
Penn objected to the name of the colony, the king remarked 
bluntly, "Don't flatter yourself. We shall keep the name to 
commemorate your memorable parent." Penn's father (Ad- 
miral Penn) was distinguished for the part he had taken in 
bringing about the restoration of Charles II to the English 
throne. 

William Penn, eminent for his high social position in Eng- 
land, as well as for his wealth, education, and culture, was the 
foremost man among the Quakers and one of the most remark- 
able men of his time. His idea, which he called his "Holy 
Experiment," was to establish a free colony or Christian com- 
munity, on the principle of the golden rule, which bids us do 
unto others as we would have them do unto us. 

150. First Settlement — The Quakers. Having obtained the 
grant of land from the king, Penn forthwith proceeded to take 
possession of it. Pennsylvania was founded in 1681, on the 
site of the present city of Chester, by a company of some 
hundred English Quakers. The immigrants were cordially wel- 
comed by the Swedish-Dutch settlers who had established here 
their village of Upland. Pennsylvania was founded as an 
asylum for persecuted English Quakers. Its first and direct 
object was religious freedom. The Quakers were extreme dis- 
senters from the established Church of England. They abol- 



108 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



ished all outward ceremonies, also the ministry, holding that 
spiritual guidance came to each individual from God Himself. 
They were bitterly persecuted in the mother country as well 
as in some of the colonies. 

151. Philadelphia Founded. In 1682 Penn came to America 
on the ship Welcome. He purchased from the Swedes a neck 
of land between the Schuylkill and Delaware rivers and laid 
out a city which he called Philadelphia, or ''Brotherly Love." 
The growth of Philadelphia was most remarkable. It soon 
surpassed New York, founded more than half a century pre- 
vious, and for more than one hundred years it was the largest 
city in America. It was carefully planned by its founder and 
was laid out in large squares. The forest at that time covered 

the land, and the walnut, 
chestnut, spruce, pine, etc., 
furnished the names for the 
first streets. It is said that 
not even one hundred dollars 
have been spent in widening 
and straightening the streets 
of the city, so carefully were 
they laid out by "William 
Penn. 

152. Treaty with the In- 
dians — The Walking Pur- 
chase. William Penn treated 
the natives, who were chiefly 
of the Delaware stock, with 
great kindness and justice. 
He made a treaty with them 
which was rigidly kept on 
both sides for more than sev- 
enty years. The Quaker hat 
and coat proved a better defense than rampart and musket. In 
accordance with Quaker faith no oath was taken when this 














--M^- 



BALTIMORE 



THE MIDDLE GROUP OP COLONIES 109 

treaty was made. The parties, according to Indian custom, 
exchanged wampum and the savages, won by the geiitle manner 
and kindly bearing of Penn, exclaimed, "As long as the river 
runs and the sun shines we will live in peace with the children 
of William Penn," The elm tree under which the memorable 
treaty was made, was blown down in 1810. A monument now 
marks its site. 

The Quakers in every instance honorably purchased their 
lands from the Indians. By the so-called "Walking Purchase," 
Penn acquired a tract of land west of the Delaware as far 
inland as a man could walk in three days. The first walk of 
a day and a half was made by Penn with a few Friends and a 
body of Indians at a leisurely pace, and covered about thirty 
miles. After Penn's death, however, the remaining part of 
the three days was used in quite a different spirit. Fast 
runners were sent out who covered eighty-six miles. This 
unfair act gave rise to the first Indian hostilities in 
Pennsylvania. 

153. Penn's Patent— His "Great Law." The Pennsylvania 
Patent made William Penn lord proprietor of Pennsylvania. 
It was modeled after that of Lord Baltimore, but did not grant 
such extensive powers. The principal differences between the 
two liberal charters were : 

(a) enactments of the Maryland Assembly became law as soon 
as signed by Lord Baltimore, while those of Pennsyl- 
vania required the approval of the king ; 
(&) the Maryland Patent denied the right of the British gov- 
ernment to impose taxes upon the colonists, whereas the 
Pennsylvania Patent expressly affirmed this power. 

As an acknowledgment of his allegiance to the crown, Penn 
was required to pay annually two beaver skins and one-fifth 
of all the gold and silver that might be found in the province. 

Penn's colony was founded upon very liberal principles. In 
accordance with these, he caused a council and an assembly 
to be elected by the people. This popular legislature enacted 



110 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

the "Great Law," or "Charter of Privileges," which wisely 

provided that : 

(a) all colonists should be protected in their worship of God, 

and no person should be compelled to support or attend 

any form of religion against his will ; 
(h) all resident tax-payers should have the right to vote, 

regardless of creed; 

(c) every child above the age of twelve should be taught some 

trade or useful occupation ; 

(d) the death penalty should be inflicted only for murder and 

treason. 

For the first time in the history of the world it was attempted 
to make every prison a place of reformation. Penn's Great 
Law remained the fundamental law of Pennsylvania until the 
Revolution. 

154. Progress — Religion and Education. Pennsylvania, more 
than any other colony of the time, was blessed with peace, 
abundance, and religious and civil liberty. These happy con- 
ditions, together with the reputation of William Penn, drew a 
numerous population to the province from various nations, and 
the colony grew with unparalleled rapidity. More German 
immigrants came into Pennsylvania in this period than into all 
the rest of America during colonial times. As many as twelve 
thousand landed in the single year of 1749. At the outbreak 
of the Revolution, according to Franklin's estimate, the popu- 
lation consisted of one-third Quakers, one-third Germans, and 
one-third miscellaneous elements. This mixed population was 
noted for thrift, learning, and industry. The chief occupa- 
tions were farming, commerce, and shipbuilding. Western 
Pennsylvania remained long unsettled, and no one suspected 
the existence of its coal and mineral wealth. 

Religious toleration prevailed throughout the colony. A 
number of Irish Catholics were among the early arrivals, and 
the Holy Sacrifice of Mass was celebrated for the first time at 
Philadelphia in 1686. 



THE MIDDLE GROUP OF COLONIES 111 

Education was not overlooked in the original plan of gov- 
ernment prepared by Penn, and schools were established (1683) 
soon after the founding of the colony. 

155, Boundary Disputes. Since Pennsylvania had no sea 
coast, Penn secured a grant of Delaware (1682) from the 
Duke of York. 

As his patent did not clearly fix the southern limits of his 
province, a boundary dispute arose with Maryland. This was 
finally settled by the Mason and Dixon's line long after both 
Baltimore and Penn were in their graves. On the north, Penn- 
sylvania came in contact with Massachusetts, Connecticut, and 
New York. Connecticut rightly complained that her grant of 
land (1662) was infringed by Penn's patent. The boundary 
contention with Connecticut continued throughout the Colonial 
and Revolutionary periods, bringing great distress and misery 
to the inhabitants of the disputed territory, the Wyoming 
Valley. The trouble was not settled until the Connecticut 
cession of western lands to the United States. 

Though Penn's colony flourished, it caused him much anxiety 
and the loss of a large fortune, for it was not free from the 
feuds common to proprietary colonies. Even during the life- 
time of Penn, the settlers refused to pay the rents necessary 
to cover the heavy outlay in behalf of the province, and sought 
to weaken his authority. Penn returned to his native land 
(1701), where he passed the remaining seventeen years of his 
well-spent life in poverty and obscurity. After his death, the 
difficulties increased under his heirs, who ruled the province 
through deputy governors. The state of Pennsylvania bought 
out the rights of the Penns (1779) for about half a million 
dollars. 



CHAPTER X 

THE NEW ENGLAND GEOUP OF COLONIES 
THE SETTLEMENT OP MASSACHUSETTS 

156. The Council of Plymouth. The Plymouth Company, one 
of the branches of the great double-headed Virginia Company, 
did little toward colonizing its grant of land, though an unsuc- 
cessful attempt to plant a colony was made by Gorges, under 
Pring and Popham, at the mouth of the Kennebec River in 
Maine. The Company later dissolved and a new corporation, 
the Council of Plymouth, was organized. 

The first settlement in the territory under the jurisdiction 
of the Council of Plymouth was made by a band of English- 
men. Through an error, they landed at Plymouth instead of 
on territory belonging to the London Company, from whom 
they had received a grant in northern Virginia. 

157. The Puritans and Separatists. A sect of English Prot- 
estants, called Puritans, had arisen during the reign of Eliz- 
abeth. They thought that the Church of England still retained 
too many rites of the Roman Catholic Church and protested 
against many of the ceremonies of worship, such as the sign 
of the cross, the use of vestments, the ring at marriage, kneel- 
ing in church, etc. As they desired to "purify" the service, 
they were called Puritans. Of these a small number refused 
to attend the English state church and became known as ' ' Sep- 
aratists." From this latter body came the Pilgrims, the found- 
ers of Plymouth. The Puritans in England became the political 
party opposed to the absolute rule of the Stuart monarchs, and 
were known as the Parliamentary party. Both Puritans and 
Separatists were sometimes called Nonconformists or Dis- 
senters. The Declaration of James I concerning all dissenters, 

112 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 



113 



*'I shall make them conform or I will harry them out of the 
land, ' ' was soon literally put into force, and all nonconformists 
were persecuted. 

158. The Pilgrims. A band of Puritan Separatists of the 
little town of Scrooby fled from religious persecution in Eng- 
land to Holland, where they lived, first at Amsterdam and later 
at Leyden. Being strangers among strangers and fearing that 
their children would forget their English speech and habits, 
they obtained permission from the London Company to settle 
within the limits of Virginia. They crossed from Delfshaven, 
Holland, to Southampton, England, from which port they set 
sail for America in the Mayflower and the Speedwell. The 
latter vessel proved unseaworthy and they were obliged to put 
back to Plymouth, from 

which port one hundred and 

two of them again set out in 

the Mayflower. After a 

stormy and perilous voyage 

they were finally forced to 

land in December on the 

bleak shores of Cape Cod. 

Here they found themselves 

on territory belonging to the Council of Plymouth, instead of 

on the land of the London Company which they were seeking. 

The Plymouth Rock, called "Forefathers' Rock," on which 

the first Pilgrims landed, is carefully preserved under a granite 

canopy at Plymouth, Massachusetts. 

159. The Mayflower Compact. To insure law and order in 
the colony which they were about to settle, the Pilgrims drew 
up on board the Mayflower a written contract pledging them- 
selves to obey such laws as they should enact for the general 
good. This compact is one of the great documents in American 
history. 

160. The First Settlement. Electing John Carver governor 
for the ensuing year, the intrepid little band of Pilgrims estab- 




brewster's residence at scrooby 



114 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

lished the first permanent settlement in Massachusetts in 1620 
at Plymouth. Unlike the Virginian adventurers, the Pilgrims 
were accompanied by their wives and children. They expected 
to live and die in America. Since they had no legal title to 
their land, they later obtained a grant from the Council of 
Plymouth. The name Massachusetts is an Indian name mean- 
ing "Great Hills Place"; Plymouth was early named by Cap- 
tain John Smith, after Plymouth in England. 

161. Difficulties — First Thanksgiving Day. The colonists 
suffered severely from cold and lack of food during the first 
winter, and Governor Carver and half of his little band died. 
Still not one of the survivors thought of returning to England 
when the Mayflower again set sail in the following spring. 
Instead they set to work preparing the soil for the seed, and 
the first crop (corn, pumpkins, etc.) raised by the Pilgrims, 
was good though small. Deer, wild turkey, and fish were 
plentiful. The colonists were now sheltered in comfortable 
houses, and after the harvest was gathered and stored away. 
Governor Bradford ordered (1621) a three days' feast of 
thanksgiving, at which Massasoit and one hundred of his braves 
were guests. Thus originated the annual festival of Thanks- 
giving which has been regularly observed every year. 

162. Plymouth Leaders — Progress — The Indians. Governor 
Carver was succeeded by William Bradford, the historian of 
the colony, who was governor of the settlement for some thirty 
years. Other leaders were William Brewster and the famous 
soldier. Miles Standish, the chosen military leader of the 
colony. Standish was a lion in battle, and spread terror among 
the hostile Indians, but was noted for his womanly tenderness 
in the care of the sick and wounded. Longfellow gives a good 
picture of him in his ''Courtship of Miles Standish." 

The Plymouth colonists, like the Virginians, at first estab- 
lished the system of holding property in common. Since this, 
however, proved impracticable even among the sober and in- 
dustrious Puritans, the common storehouse was abolished 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 



115 



within a few years after the founding of the colony. Owing 
to the poverty of the settlers, and also to the fact that the 
number of Separatists in England was small, the colony grew 
but slowly. It finally ceased its separate existence (1691) 
when it was united to the Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

The Indian tribes of the region belonged to the Algonquin 
family; fortunately for the settlers, they had been greatly 
reduced in number by a pestilence. In the spring the settle- 
ment was surprised by visits from two friendly savages, 










A GROUP OF PILGRIMS 



Samoset, who had learned a few words of English from fisher- 
men on the coast of Maine, and Squanto, who had been pre- 
viously kidnapped and taken to England. These two natives 
brought to the settlement Massasoit, the great chief of the 
Wampanoags, who made a treaty of friendship and alliance 
with the Pilgrims. On the other hand, Canonicus, chief of the 
Narragansetts, sent the colonists a declaration of war in the 
shape of a bundle of arrows tied with a rattlesnake skin. 
Governor Bradford promptly returned the skin filled with pow- 
der and shot, whereupon Canonicus treated for peace. 



116 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

163. Government. The Pilgrims introduced the English 
town meeting. This government, a pure democracy in form, 
was the first of the kind in America. All the citizens gathered 
at the town meeting and voted on all questions directly instead 
of through representatives. Gradually, however, it became 
inconvenient for all voters to assemble at Plymouth, and a rep- 
resentative system, resembling the House of Burgesses, was 
established. The right of suffrage was at first extended to all 
men, but soon it was restricted by religious qualifications. 

164. Salem the Second Settlement. Charles I proved even 
more intolerant toward the Puritans than his father James I. 
He imperiously dissolved his Parliament and determined to rule 
as he pleased. A number of Puritans, adherents of the Par- 
liamentary party, alarmed at the king's conduct and encour- 
aged by the example of the Pilgrims, obtained from the Council 
of Plymouth a grant of land. This included all the territory 
between the Merrimac and Charles rivers, and three miles 
beyond each, extending westward as far as the South Sea 
(Pacific). A band of some sixty Puritans settled at Salem in 
1628 under John Endicott, who named his settlement after the 
Bible city, Salem (peace). 

Endicott was bold and energetic, a rigid Puritan in prin- 
ciples, and severe in the execution of all the laws against those 
who differed in their religious belief from that of the colony. 
At a later time, he put to death four Quakers, and cut the red 
cross out of the English flag because it represented to his mind 
the ancient Catholic religion of England. 

165. The Massachusetts Bay Colony — Charter. Charles I, 
perhaps glad to get rid of a large number of his troublesome 
subjects, confirmed (1629) the grant made by the Council of 
Plymouth by a charter which created the Massachusetts Bay 
Company. This charter was a very liberal one and gave to 
the Company extensive powers which in fact amounted to self- 
government. Since the charter did not state that the seat of 
government should be in England, as was the case with other 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 117 

colonizing corporations, the members of the Company emi- 
grated to New England and there became the self-governing 
community known as Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

166. Boston, Third Settlement. John Winthrop, with a col- 
ony of one thousand Puritans, came to Salem (1630), whence 
he immediately moved to Charleston, and finally to the present 
site of Boston. Here he planted a settlement which he called 
"Tri-raountain" or "Tremont" (because of its triple hill), and 
later Boston, after the English town, the home of many of the 
settlers. Puritan immigration poured in and settled under the 
Massachusetts Bay Company at Dorchester, Cambridge, Water- 
town, and other places, all of which with Boston formed the 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. 

167. Towns or Townships — Government. The Puritans usu- 
ally came in large communities, led by their ministers, with 
their plans of government well defined. They settled in par- 
ishes or townships, each about six or eight miles square. The 
people of each township built their homes near a church or 
meeting house. All public business was transacted in the 
church, or in the town hall. 

The New England town or township, modeled after the 
Anglo-Saxon town of England, was the origin of our present 
system of townships, and was the striking feature of New 
England life, as the plantation was of life in the Southern 
Colonies. In Virginia we have the beginning of county gov- 
ernment, while in Massachusetts we have the origin of town 
government. 

Massachusetts was originally a charter colony in which the 
governor and the members of the legislature, or General Court, 
were elected by the freemen of the towns. Each town consti- 
tuted a little commonwealth, chose its own officers, regulated 
its taxation and political affairs, and sent its delegates (depu- 
ties) to the General Court. 

168. The New England Confederation. The various settle- 
ments of Massachusetts and Connecticut (Massachusetts Bay, 



118 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven) formed a confedera- 
tion or military league (1643), under the name of ''The United 
Colonies of New England" for the purpose of common defense 
against the French, the Dutch, and the Indians, and also against 
any possible attack by the despotic English monarch, upon their 
rights of self-government. Under the constitution of the 




NEW ENGLAND KITCHEN 

league, each colony was independent in its local affairs, while 
important matters of common interest — Indian and inter-colo- 
nial affairs — were referred to a commission of two representa- 
tives from each colony. The confederation lasted forty years 
and is the first experiment in united action by American col- 
onies. It was of far-reaching importance, because it prepared 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 119 

the way for the Continental Congress and for the final union of 
the states in 1789. It taught the colonists how to unite, and 
made stronger their feeling of independence. 

169. Religious Intolerance. Although the Puritans had been 
driven by religious persecution to the New World, they showed 
no desire in their new home to establish religious liberty. 
Eoman Catholics, Baptists, and Quakers were held in special 
abhorrence. All Jesuits and Catholic priests were for- 
bidden to enter the colony, under penalty of banishment, and 
death in case of return. Parkman says : ' ' New England Prot- 
estantism appealed to liberty and then closed the door against 
her." 

Roger Williams, a young Salem minister, was a man of high 
ideals and natural ability. He advocated the separation of 
church from state, and full toleration in religious matters; 
he held that a man is responsible for his opinions only to God 
and to his own conscience. He also asserted that the king of 
of England had no right to grant American Indian lands to 
the colonists. Because of these principles, so contrary to 
Puritan theory and practice, Williams was sentenced by the 
General Court of Massachusetts to be sent back to England. 
He fled to the wilderness, however, where he was befriended 
by the Indians. In the following year he founded Providence, 
the first permanent town in the present state of Rhode Island. 

The peace of the colony was next disturbed by Mrs. Anne 
Hutchinson, a gifted woman who gathered together the women 
of Boston to discuss religious matters. Banished with her 
adherents, she sought refuge in Rhode Island. Later she moved 
to New York where she perished in an Indian massacre. 

The Quakers were the special objects of Puritan dislike and 
were forbidden to enter the colony. Four of them were hanged 
on Boston Common. Charles II finally intervened because 
of his friendship for William Penn, and the persecution ceased. 

170. The Salem Witchcraft. A strange delusion (1692) re- 
garding witchcraft, intensified by the writings and sermons 



120 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

of the prominent Puritan minister, Cotton Mather, gave rise 
to a reign of terror in the colony. Various persons, at first 
only children and old women, were accused of having leagued 
with the devil for the purpose of inflicting upon others differ- 
ent forms of torments. Suspicions, accusations, tortures, 
forced confessions of guilt, and executions followed one upon 
another, till the people became panic-stricken and no one felt 
secure. At length the colonists returned to their senses, the 
prison doors were thrown open, and the judges and ministers 
publicly confessed their error, but only after twenty persons 
had been executed (nineteen hanged, one pressed to death), 
and many others tortured and imprisoned. The memory of 
this event will ever be a source of shame and humiliation to 
the nation. (Read Longfellow's "Giles Corey.") 

In Europe the belief in witchcraft was common and in Great 
Britain several thousand unfortunate persons suffered death 
for this alleged crime; the law punishing it was not repealed 
until 1776. 

171. The Puritans and the Indians. The Indians in the 
earliest days of Massachusetts were friendly to the colonists. 
They taught the white men the methods of hunting, fishing, 
trapping, and traveling, and the use and cultivation of Indian 
corn, all of which services were very poorly requited by the 
settlers of Massachusetts. 

The colonists looked upon the Indians, in the words of Brad- 
ford, as ' ' only savage and brutish men who range up and down 
the country little otherwise than the wild beasts of the same, 
and whom the whites had a right to exterminate, in order to 
render the colony habitable to civilized man." Of course, the 
fierce retaliations of the savages by means of the tomahawk 
and scalping knife bred a pitiless spirit in the hearts of the 
Puritans. Some rather futile attempts were made, however, by 
the settlers to christianize the Indians. One of the missionaries 
most active in this respect was John Eliot, a minister of the 
Church of England, who came to Boston (1631). He studied 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 121 

the native dialect, translated the Bible into the Indian tongue 
and gathered his converts into settlements called "towns of 
praying Indians." The attempts of the English to christianize 
the Indians begun by Eliot ended with the outbreak of the 
wars between the Indians and the colonists. 

172. King Philip's War. On the death of the friendly 
Massasoit, his son, Alexander, became chief of the Wampan- 
oags. Alexander's death soon after a visit to Plymouth caused 
his brother Philip to suspect foul play. In order to avenge 
the wrong done his people, and to check English encroach- 
ments on the Indian hunting grounds, Philip leagued with the 
tribes from Maine to the Hudson for the purpose of. exter- 
minating all the whites in New England. The consequence 
was a horrible Indian war (1675) noted for its cruelties on both 
sides. It lasted for two years, until the death of King Philip, 
who was hunted from place to place. He was finally shot by 
a treacherous Indian at Mount Hope (Bristol) in Rhode Island. 
King Philip's skull, cut off by Captain Church, was exposed 
on a pole at Plymouth for many years. His wife and youthful 
son were sold into slavery and about a thousand Indians were 
slaughtered. The prosperous Wampanoags, Narragansetts, 
and other New England tribes, except the friendly Mohegans, 
were scattered. The power of the New England Indians was 
forever broken. The colonists, too, especially those of Massa- 
chusetts, keenly felt the brunt of the conflict: out of ninety 
towns, twelve were utterly destroyed, while forty others had 
been the scenes of horrible massacres. More than one thousand 
men and a great many women and children perished during 
this period. 

173. Massachusetts Incurs Royal Disfavor. After a time 
Massachusetts incurred the disfavor of the crown, because of 
the following facts : 

(a) the colony, having long been left to follow its own course, 
had built up a strong and independent government, the 
republican tendencies of which displeased the king; 



122 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

(&) it disregarded the Navigation Acts, which, as in Virginia 

and other English colonies, crippled trade; 
(c) it had welcomed two of the escaped judges (Goffe and 

Whalley) who had sentenced Charles I to death ; 
(cZ) it had extended its dominion over New Hampshire and 
purchased Maine, in spite of the king's opposition, from 
Gorges; and 
(e) worst of all, in the king's estimation, the colony was noto- 
riously opposed to the Church of England, allowing only 
Congregational Church members to vote or to hold office. 
Accordingly, the king proceeded to take measures for 
humbling his independent subjects, 
Charles II, therefore, withdrew the charter of Massachusetts 
(1684), making it a royal colony. He died, however, before 
all of his plans could be carried out, but they were furthered 
by King James II, who (1686) imposed upon the colony its 
first royal governor, the tyrannical Sir Edmund Andros, the 
governor-general of the whole of New England. On the occa- 
sion of the deposition of James II (1689) the people of New 
England imprisoned Andros at Boston, and later sent him back 
to England, whereupon the old forms of government were 
quietly resumed. After a lapse of two years. King William 
(1691) granted a new charter to Massachusetts, annexing to it 
Maine, Nova Scotia, and Plymouth. Under this charter the 
colony was allowed to hold town meetings and to elect a legis- 
lature, but the governor was to be appointed by the king; 
religious toleration, the right of suffrage, and the holding of 
office were permitted to all except Roman Catholics. 

The British government, wishing to unite all its northern 
colonies for the sake of security against the French, had sent, 
as we have seen, Sir Edmund Andros to rule absolutely over 
the whole of New England, as well as New York and New 
Jersey. He was notorious for his tyranny and his arbitrary 
conduct. The royal governors succeeding him were generally 
disliked and in constant trouble with the legislature or General 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 123 

Court. These difficulties continued to increase until they 
finally ended with the opening battle of the Revolution (1775). 

174. Education. The Massachusetts people early provided 
for the education of their children by establishing (1647) free 
schools. In fact, to Massachusetts must be attributed the origin 
of the United States public school system. Many of the Massa- 
chusetts settlers were university graduates and it was but 
natural that they deemed a college a necessity. The General 
Court gave a whole year's tax, and John Harvard, a young 
clergyman, bequeathed his books and half his estate toward 
the founding of Harvard College (Harvard University), the 
first in the United States, though not the first on the conti- 
nent. The college was named Harvard out of gratitude toward 
its benefactor, and the name of Newtown, in which town it was 
located, was changed to Cambridge in honor of Cambridge 
University in England. The printing press set up in Cambridge 
in 1639 was the first in the United States, but not the first in 
America. 

175. Character — Manners and Customs. The Puritan found- 
ers of Massachusetts, though exceedingly bigoted and tyran- 
nical toward all believers in any creed except their own, were 
characterized by industry, sobriety, enterprise, and religion. 
They came to settle permanently in the New "World and to 
establish there a church and government according to their 
own ideas. 

The Puritan settlers, by reason of their peculiar religious 
views, were of a gloomy nature, and their manners were severe 
and repelling. Every town had its public whipping post ; 
many offenses were punished by the stocks ; gossips and scolds 
were bound and gagged at their own doors ; fines were exacted 
for the wearing of too costly clothing. 

The Puritan, unlike the Cavalier and the aristocratic settler 
of the southern colonies, did not attire himself in satins, vel- 
vets, lace ruffies, gold buckles, or plumes, but rather in a sora- 
ber-hued tunic, loose knee trousers, and long woolen stockings. 



124 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



For out-of-door wear this costume was completed by a steeple- 
crowned hat and a short cloak. All persons were forbidden, 
on the Sabbath, to run or to walk anywhere "save reverently 
to and from church." These laws, though stern in themselves, 
produced a hardy race. 

176. Industry. The rocky soil and cold climate of New 
England were not favorable to rural life, hence the people, un- 







THE STOCKS AND PILLORY 



like those of the southern colonies, who lived on broad planta- 
tions, dwelt in towns, surrounded by the small farms of the 
peasantry. The swift running streams encouraged manufac- 
turing; the good fishing off the coast led to a prosperous ex- 
port trade in dried fish; the wild animals of the forest fur- 
nished a profitable trade in furs; while the fine timber of the 
woodlands encouraged the shipbuilding industry, for which 
New England is still famous. 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 125 

THE SETTLEMENT OP NEW HAMPSHIRE AND MAINE 

177. Founding of New Hampshire. New Hampshire was 
permanently settled at Dover and Portsmouth in 1623 by 
people from England under the proprietaries of Sir Ferdinando 
Gorges and John Mason. The Council of Plymouth granted 
Gorges and Mason the territory extending between the Merri- 
mac and the Kennebec rivers, and sixty miles inland. The 
settlement, made for the personal gain of the proprietors, was 
prompted by the prospects of a flourishing fish and fur trade. 

Later the owners (1629) divided their grant, Gorges select- 
ing the country east of the Piscataqua River, which was called 
Maine (mainland), probably. to distinguish it from the many 
islands along the coast. Mason held as his portion the coun- 
try west of the river, naming it New Hampshire after Hamp- 
shire, the English county which had been his home in England. 

Adherents of Mrs. Anne Hutchinson eventually settled at 
Exeter and soon other settlers from Massachusetts estab- 
lished themselves at Hampton. Many years later (1719) immi- 
grants from northern Ireland settled at Londonderry. They 
introduced the manufacture of linen, which was soon indus- 
triously practiced on a little flax wheel by the thrifty housewife 
of every log cabin. 

178. Government — Religion — Manners and Customs. New 
Hampshire and Maine, while proprietary colonies under Gorges 
and Mason, were, on the whole, left to follow their own course. 
Massachusetts claimed all of the territory, and to make good 
a portion of this claim bought Maine from the heirs of Gorges 
(1677), after which event the latter colony continued a part 
of Massachusetts until its admission into the Union. New 
Hampshire remained for a long time under the protection of 
Massachusetts. After severing its connection with that settle- 
ment it became a separate royal colony, and continued such 
until the Revolution. 

The settlers of New Hampshire belonged for the most part 



126 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

to the Church of England. At the present city of Calais, 
Maine, the French, under De Monts and Champlain, erected 
a number of buildings including a small chapel. In this chapel 
the Holy Sacrifice of the Mass was offered for the first time 
on New England soil in 1604. 

Since New Hampshire was so intimately united with Massa- 
chusetts, it has, necessarily, almost a common history with it; 
hence the study of the customs, manners, and occupations of 
Massachusetts will fairly acquaint us with those of New Hamp- 
shire. The people of New Hampshire, however, were not so 
rigid in their laws and ways of living as those of Massachu- 
setts. They were religious after the Puritan fashion (Congre- 
gationalists), and thrifty, resolute, and brave. 

THE SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT 

179. First Permanent Settlement. The territory of Connecti- 
cut, claimed by the Dutch because of Henry Hudson's and 
Adrian Block's explorations, was first occupied at Hartford, 
by a company of Dutch traders from New Amsterdam. This 
settlement, however, was only temporary. Connecticut was 
first permanently colonized in 1633, at "Windsor, by English 
traders, under the authority of the Governor of Plymouth 
and the leadership of William Holmes. Later, under the pro- 
prietaries of Lord Say-and-Seal, Lord Brooke, and others, and 
under the leadership of John Winthrop, son of Governor Win- 
throp, Saybrook was founded (1635) by people from Massachu- 
setts. The two proprietors made no further effort to plant 
colonies in the domain granted them by the Council of Plym- 
outh, but immigration from Massachusetts, already begun 
without their permission, continued to people the Connecticut 
valley. Connecticut derived its name from the Connecticut 
River, an Indian name signifying "Long River." 

180. Winthrop 's and Hooker's Ideas — Consequences. Gov- 
ernor Winthrop of Massachusetts, aristocratic in his political 
views, held that a large part of the people was unfit to have 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 



127 




a share in the government. He thought that the best and wisest 
persons only, especially the clergy, should hold the controlling 
part in the government. 

Thomas Hooker, the eloquent pastor of the Puritan church 
in Newtown (Cambridge) was, on the contrary, democratic in 
his views. He held that all the people ought, directly or indi- 
rectly, to take part in the 
government, either by hold- 
ing office or by voting. 

Repelled by the autocratic 
government of Massachu- 
setts and attracted by the 
promising fur trade and the 
fertility of the Connecticut 
valley, bodies of Massachu- 
setts colonists migrated from 
Newtown, Watertown, and 
Dorchester to Connecticut, 
and founded the towns of 
Wethersfield (1634), Wind- 
sor (163.5), and Hartford 
(1636). The settlement of 
Hartford was the most im- 
portant of the three towns 
thus founded. Led by their 
minister, Thomas Hooker, 
some one. hundred men, 

women, and children journeyed through the unbroken wilderness 
from Cambi'idge to Hartford, driving their flocks before them. 

Thus we find that the settlement of Connecticut was 
prompted by the prospects of greater civil liberty, a promising 
fur trade, and the desire for the establishment of new homes in 
the fertile Connecticut valley. 

181. The Connecticut Constitution. The three river towns 
of Windsor, Wethersfield, and Hartford leagued together 




JOHN WINTHROP 



128 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

under the name of Connecticut Colony. They adopted (1639) 
a written constitution which they called "The Fundamental 
Orders." This was the first written American constitution 
and was drawn up independently of King, Parliament, Char- 
ter, or mother colony. It formed the United Settlements of 
Connecticut into a little republic having a government, in gen- 
eral, like that of Massachusetts. Connecticut, however, re- 
quired no religious test for citizenship. 

182. The New Haven Colony. New Haven, another inde- 
pendent colony, was founded (1638) on Long Island Sound, 
by a company of English traders — Puritans of the strictest 
type — under the leadership of their minister John Davenport 
and a London merchant, Theophilus Eaton. This colony 
based its government upon the Bible, adopting the Mosaic 
code of laws, and like the Massachusetts Bay Colony allowed 
none but church members to vote. Its strange rules have been 
the object of ridicule under the name of "Blue Laws." These 
were severe laws which regulated not only the ordinary 
political actions, but also the opinions, religious practices, cut 
of hair, style of dress, and many other minute affairs of the 
people, fixing even the occasion on which a mother might kiss 
her child. Twelve offenses were punishable by death, less 
serious violations of law by the rack, the stocks, the whipping- 
post, the branding-iron, etc. 

183. The Connecticut Charter. After the restoration of 
Charles II to the English throne, the younger "Winthrop was 
sent to England to petition the king for a charter which would 
establish Connecticut as an independent colony under the 
famous Fundamental Orders, already adopted by the three 
towns. Winthrop secured a most liberal charter, which in 
reality made Connecticut a little republic in which the people 
elected their own governors and made their own laws. It so 
well satisfied the people that it afterwards became the state 
constitution, remaining in force till 1818. 

When Sir Edmund Andros became governor-general of the 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 129 

whole of New England, the Connecticut charter was annulled 
and the colony became a royal province. Andros went to 
Hartford and demanded of the assembly the much treasured 
charter. It is said that during the course of a heated debate 
which was prolonged till after dark, the candles were suddenly 
bloM^i out, and when they were re-lighted the charter had 
disappeared. It had been hidden in the hollow of a tree 
famous ever after as the "Charter Oak." Andros no longer 
had a charter to suppress, but the colony no longer had one 
to appeal to. Thus Connecticut passed under the despotic sway 
of Governor Andros, as a royal province, even though the 
charter lay hidden within its boundaries. The Charter Oak 
was blown down in a storm (1856), but a marble tablet now 
marks the site where it stood. When James II was deposed, 
Andros lost his authority, and the colony resumed its charter 
government. 

184. The Pequot War. The Connecticut settlers were re- 
peatedly attacked by the powerful Pequot Indians, who ap- 
peared to be plotting the extermination of the English. Con- 
sequently Major John Mason (1637), with a band of about 
one hundred men, attacked the savages. The Pequots tried 
to induce the Mohegans and the Narragansetts to join them, 
but Roger Williams, forgetting the wrong done him by Massa- 
chusetts, used his great influence with these tribes, and they 
refused to help the Pequots in their war against the colonists 
of Connecticut. Major Mason finally destroyed the entire 
tribe. 

185. Religion — Manners and Customs — Education. The col- 
onizers of Connecticut were Puritans of the Congregational 
type. Other Christian denominations were merely tolerated 
and religious freedom received only a scant and reluctant rec- 
ognition. No Catholic priest was allowed to abide in its do- 
main. 

The settlers of Connecticut belonged to the same class of 
people as those of Massachusetts. Hence, they were similar 



130 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to them in manners and customs, though perhaps less intoler- 
ant in religious matters, and more liberal in political affairs. 
Education received early attention in Connecticut. Free 
schools were established in 1650, and Yale College, the third 
in the United States, was founded at New Haven (1701). 

THE SETTLEMENT OP RHODE ISLAND 

186. Founding of Rhode Island — The Rhode Island Char- 
ter. When Roger Williams fled to the wilderness in mid- 
winter in order to escape being transported to England, he 
and his five companions sought refuge in the hospitable tent 
of jMassasoit, on Narragansett Bay. At the opening of spring, 
he procured from his red friends a tract of land upon which 
he founded a town (1636) for the purpose of greater religious 
and civil liberty. He called his settlement Providence, in 
gratitude for God's mercy which had thus provided for him. 
Rhode Island was probably named after the island of Rhodes 
in the Mediterranean, or possibly after "Roode Eyelandt" 
(Red Island), a name which was given by the Dutch to a 
large island at the entrance of Narragansett Bay. 

Further bands of exiles led respectively by William Cod- 
dington and Mrs. Anne Hutchinson bought from the Indians 
the island of Rhode Island and there planted the colonies of 
Portsmouth and Newport. A fourth colony was founded by 
Greene and Gorton at Warwick south of Providence. 

The various settlements established in Rhode Island were 
at first voluntary associations, purely democratic in form, 
in which everything was decided by the votes of the majority. 
When Roger Williams visited England as agent of the settlers, 
however, he procured (1644) from a Parliamentary commis- 
sion a charter which united the colonies under the name of 
Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. This granted the 
people the right to elect their own governors and to rule them- 
selves by such form of government as they thought best. The 
charter was confirmed by Charles II, and remained for one 



THE NEW ENGLAND GROUP OF COLONIES 131 

hundred and eighty years (1063-1843) the supreme law of 
Rhode Ishind. 

187. Difficulties — Government. The colony suffered greatly 
at the time of King Philip's War, during which Providence 
was burned and other settlements were laid waste. The Great 
Swamp Fight, which broke the Indian Confederacy, took place 
on Rhode Island soil and King Philip was slain by treachery at 
Mount Hope. The peace of Rhode Island was also much dis- 
turbed by disputes with the neighboring colonies, Massachu- 
setts and Connecticut, each of which claimed part of its terri- 
tory. The colony finally succeeded in fixing its boundaries 
much as they are at present. Owing to differences in religious 
matters Rhode Island was furthermore refused admission to 
the New England Confederacy. 

When Sir Ednumd Andros extended his Viceroyalty over 
all of New England, Rhode Island became a royal colony 
(1686). After the overthrow of Andros it resumed its liberal 
charter, under which it continued to govern itself until long 
after the Revolution. 

188. Religion — Class of People. The first Baptist church in 
America was founded by Roger Williams in Rhode Island and 
the Baptist denomination was the most influential in the col- 
ony. The charter granted religious freedom to all. For a time 
however (from 1719 till the Revolution), Catholics and Jews 
were denied the right to vote, but were allowed freedom of 
worship. 

The settlers of Rhode Island, though nnich more liberal in 
their moral and civil principles, resembled the people of the 
mother colony in their customs. The first institution of 
higher learning was Brown University (founded 1764). 



CHAPTER XI 

INTER COLONIAL WARS 
A BRIEF STTRVEY 




FRENCH AND INDIANS 

189. French Claims — Posts. France, through the labors of 
her loyal subjects, had established a claim to New France 
(including Acadia, Canada, and the Mississippi Valley), a vast 
region stretching from the mouth of the St. Lawrence around 
the English colonies to the mouth of the Mississippi, and thence 
to the Rio Grande. The east and west boundaries were the 
Alleghany and the Rocky Mountains. France based her claim 
upon : 

(a) discoveries and explorations made under the patronage and 
at the expense of the kings, the nobility, and the Church 
of France; 
(&) actual occupation, though only by widely scattered settle- 
ments ; 
(c) the express consent of the Indians, whom the French did 
not dispossess of their lands; and upon the conversion 
of many Indian tribes. 

132 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 



133 



Thus we find that the French were by no means idle while 
the English, Dutch, and Swedes were planting the famous 
thirteen original colonies along the Atlantic coast. In fact, 
they were actively engaged in building up a French empire 
on the American continent. We have also seen that they took 
actual possession of New France by numerous, though widely 
scattered settlements, comprising many fortresses and more 
than sixty military, trading, and missionary posts — all in a 



SgliW^ 



^^^' 



h- 






QUEBEC./ ■ ^,t,igj?^s^^t,'^!£-- ■ 










region wholly uninhabited by the English. These posts were 

located at points of military importance : 

(a) Mackinac and Sault Ste. Marie were established on the 

older routes of the northern waters; 
(&) Detroit controlled the more direct routes of the Mississippi; 

(c) Forts Miami and St. Joseph were located at important 

routes of travel ; 

(d) Cahokia, Kaskaskia, and Chartres in Illinois were trading 

centers ; 

(e) Vincennes was a stronghold on the Wabash River; 

(/) Mobile, New Orleans, and Fort Rosalia upheld the French 
power on the Gulf. 
190. The Two Nations as Rivals. The French and the Eng- 
lish in North America differed in race and religion and were 



1;j4 a history Ol-' THE UNITED STATES 

by 110 means on friendly terms, owing to conflicting interests 
which may be summed up as follows : 

(a) the two nations were rivals in the flourishing fishing indus- 
try of the northern Atlantic waters ; 
(6) they were rivals in the rich fur trade of Acadia and north- 
ern Maine ; 
(f) both nations claimed possession of the Ohio Valley. 

Under such conditions peace between the French and the 
English in America was impossible. The ultimate outcome of 
the standing enmity between the two nations was a great strife 
for supremacy, in the four Inter-Colonial Wars. 

191. Causes for These Wars — Comparative Strength of the 
Rivals. The principal causes for the first three of the Inter- 
colonial Wars may be generally attributed to the hostile rela- 
tions between the rival colonists, which were kindled into 
action by war between the mother countries. 

The English were disunited by jealousies and conflicting 
interests, and these conditions rendered it difficult to raise a 
military force. The French, on the contrary, were firmly 
united under one government centered at Quebec. The English 
were supported by the Iroquois nations onl,y, while the French 
had as allies the numerous Indian tribes of Canada and Maine. 
The English, however, owing to their growing population, 
industries, wealth, and superior resources, particularly the 
powerful navy of the mother country, were far better prepared 
for the struggle than the French. The main strength of the 
latter lay in the scattered military posts, each of which was 
made up of a handful of soldiers, a number of traders, and a 
f ( w hardy peasants. 

The population of New France, partly because of geograph- 
ical conditions, increased but slowly, and numbered only about 
eighty thousand in 1754. In marked contrast, the English colo- 
nies contained at that time more than one million people. Mis- 
sionary enthusiasm, the spirit of adventure, and the prospects 
of gain, principally through the fur trade (which industry was 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 135 

favored by geographical conditions) increased the wandering 
and adventiirons tendencies of the French settlers, and did not 
advance self-governing methods. The English colonists, on the 
contrary, were characterized by a colonizing spirit, which 
songlit material gain and eventual civil strength in the toilsome 
process of building homes in a new land. 

KINC WIIJJA!\rS WAR ( ]«S!I-1(!!)7 ) 

192. Cause — Time — Scene. When King James II of England 
was driven from the throne, he fled to Louis XTV of France. 
William of Orange, son-in-law of James II, and his wife Mary, 
became rulers of England. The French King defended 
the deposed English King and the consequence was war be- 
tween France and England, which spread to the English and 
French colonies in America. The French, with their Algonquin 
and Abnaki allies, fought against the English, supported by 
the Iroquois. The war continued for a period of eight years 
and was fought on the soil of the Iroquois territory, New Eng- 
land, and the adjoining borders of the French possessions. 

193. Principal Events — Outcome. There was bitter war- 
fare in the Iroquois region; a party of pagan Iroquois in a 
midnight massacre devastated Lachine, while the French and 
Indians surprised and destroyed Schenectady. A series of 
attacks conducted by bands of French and Indians laid waste 
Doyer, Pemaquid, Salmon Falls, and Casco (now Portland). 
The first Colonial Congress, representing Massachusetts, New 
York, Plymouth, and Connecticut, made a threefold plan for 
the conquest of Canada. A naval force under William Phipps, 
governor of Massachusetts, took Port Royal but was unsuc- 
cessful in its attack on Quebec. The attempt to capture Mon- 
treal by forces from New York was also a failure. 

These tAvo defeats and the retaking of Port Royal by the 
French put an end to active warfare except in the east. There 
the Indian allies of the French kept the English terrorized, 
even sacking Haverhill, less than thirtv miles from Boston. 



136 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Among the thrilling stories of those days of savage warfare, 
one of the most notable was that of the Dustin family at the 
Haverhill massacre. Mr. Dustin secured the safety of seven 
of his children by telling them to run ahead, while he, re- 
treating slowly, kept the Indians back with his gun. Mrs. 
Dustin, who was unable to escape, saw her house burned and 
her infant child dashed to death against a tree, while she was 
carried away captive. Later, she and two companions, after 
killing ten Indians, succeeded in escaping. 

The war was finally ended by a treaty of peace between the 
French and the English, signed at Ryswiek, Holland, May 20, 
1697. Colonial boundaries remained unchanged. Neither had 
gained territory, and the old causes for enmity remained. 

QUEEN ANNE'S WAR (1702-17i:j) 

194. Cause — Time — Scene. Queen Anne of England de- 
clared war against France and Spain. This war fanned into 
flames a war between their respective colonies in America, 
where the old enmity, occasioned by the conflicting claims of 
territory still existed. The war lasted eleven years and was 
fought in the North, on the border of Canada and New Eng- 
land, and in the South, on Carolina and Spanish soil. 

Many of the Iroquois had become sincere Catholics and a 
law passed in New York (1700) prohibiting any Catholic mis- 
sionary under penalty of death to enter the territory of the 
Iroquois, induced these Indians to sign a treaty with the au- 
thorities of Canada (1701). By this treaty the Iroquois refused 
to attack the French and the Indians of Canada. 

195. Principal Events — Outcome. A New England raid into 
the Canadian and the Indian territory brought the northern 
natives down upon Maine, New Hampshire, and into the 
very heart of Massachusetts, laying waste Wells, Saco, Caseo, 
Deerfield, and Haverhill. The New Englanders retaliated by 
capturing Port Royal. Their effort to take Quebec, however, 
again proved a failure. The English of South Carolina 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 137 

attacked the Spanish in Florida, while the Spanish attempted 
to capture Charleston. Nothing was gained on either side. 
The peace of Utrecht, Holland (1713) put an end to Queen 
Anne's War. By it Acadia, Newfoundland, and the borders 
of Hudson Bay were ceded to the English. Henceforth Acadia 
became known as Nova Scotia, while Port Royal was named 
Annapolis in honor of Queen Anne. The treaty of Utrecht, 
like that of Ryswick, left the boundary limits between the 
French and the English undecided. 

KIN(; OKOUGE'S WAR (1744-1748) 

196. Cause — Time — Events. War having broken out be- 
tween Great Britain and France, conflicting interests between 
their colonies in America brought about the third colonial war. 
It lasted four years and was named after the reigning sov- 
ereign of England, George 11. 

The one great event of this war was the capture of the pow- 
erful French fort, Louisburg, by English and colonial troops 
numbering four thousand. Louisburg, sometimes, like Quebec, 
called the ' ' Gibraltar of America, ' ' was by far the most power- 
ful fortress in America at the time. It had cost the French 
more than five million dollars. Its position at the town and 
harbor of Louisburg, on Cape Breton Island, made it the guar- 
dian of the St. Lawrence and a constant menace to English 
fishing fleets. 

197. Outcome of the War. The treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle 
(1748) ended the war. By it England gave back Louisburg 
to the French in return for Madras in India and the payment 
of the colonial debt incurred by the war. The boundaries 
between the French and the English were again left undecided, 
and the germ of a new war still remained. The giving back 
of Louisburg to the French in exchange for a foreign posses- 
sion was one of the first events which led the Englis'h colonies 
to see that American affairs should be settled on this side of 
the Atlantic and not by a power thousands of miles away. 



138 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR ( 1754-1 TC.:: ) 



%^;^ 




198. SigTiificance of the War. The French and Indian War 
was the most important of the four inter-colonial wars. The 
three earlier colonial wars were caused by contentions be- 
tween the mother countries. But this time the colonies went 
to war on their own account. The other three wars had 
settled nothing, while this war was to decide which of the 
two nations, the French or the English, should be supreme in 
North America. In this conflict the Indians, with the excep- 
tion of the Iroquois who remained neutral, united with the 
French against the English. For this reason the struggle 
which resulted is known as the French and Indian War. 

199. Conflicting Claims — Causes. The English viewed the 
chain of French forts, which checked their colonization in the 
west, with alarm. They had by this time extended their set- 
tlements as far west as the Alleghanies. A dispute concern- 
ing the ownership of tlie Oliio valley soon arose betweeii the 
two i-ival colonies. The French claimed this great region as 
a part of the discovery of Fatlier Marquette and La Salle, 
while at the same time the English claimed it as a part of 
Virginia, granted by the early charters, which were based on 
the Cabot discoveries. They furthermore claimed it on the 
ground that the territory belonged to the Iroquois who were 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 



139 



considered subjects of Great Britain. In order to make good 
their claims to the disputed territory, the English organized 







the Ohio Company'', composed of prominent Virginians, who 
received from George II a grant of land between the Kanawha 



140 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and the Monongahela rivers, for the purpose of trade and col- 
onization. The company at once sent out explorers and pre- 
pared to take possession of the upper Ohio valley. The French 
promptly resolved to stop the movement. They buried leaden 
plates, inscribed with the claim of France, along the Alleghany 
and Ohio rivers, to the mouth of the Great Miami and began 
a new line of forts, including Presque Isle, La Boeuf, and 
Venango, which extended from Erie on Lake Erie to the point 
Avhere the Alleghany and the Monongahela rivers meet to form 
the Ohio, the present site of Pittsburg. This point, located 
at the head of inland navigation, was, with good reason, styled 
the "Gateway of the ^Vest." Both parties understood the 
advantage of controlling it; both were determined to seize and 
fortify it. 

Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia alarmed at the activity dis- 
played by the French, sent to Fort La Boeuf George Wash- 
ington, a young Virginian, to inform the French commander 
that he was building on English territory and would do well 
to depart peaceably. "Washington returned from his perilous 
journey with a refusal from St. Pierre, the French commander. 
The Ohio Company now began to build a fort at the "Gateway 
of the West." The French drove them off and erected Fort 
Duquesne. Washington was sent with a small force to inter- 
cept the progress of the French, but was defeated. Being 
forced to surrender at Fort Necessity (July 4, 1754), he re- 
turned to Virginia. 

200. The Albany Plan of Union. For the first time we find 
all the colonies working together. A convention of the north- 
ern colonies met at Albany, at which Benjamin Franklin pro- 
posed a u)non of the colonies under a president appointed by 
the crown and a council chosen by the people. His plan of 
action, however, was rejected by the king as well as by the 
colonists. 

Fraijklin, who was a delegate from Pennsylvania, prepared 
and printed in his "Pennsylvania Gazette," a device which 



INTEK-COLONIAL WARS 141 

represented the thirteen colonies in the form of a snake cut 
in pieces, with the motto "Unite or Die." 

201. War Declared. The defeat of Washington at Fort 
Necessity practically began the struggle between France and 
England in America, but war was not formally declared be- 
tween the two nations until the spring of 1756. France now 
sent over the distinguished Marquis Montcalm to take com- 
niand of her forces. On the part of England, the war on both 
sides of the ocean was skillfully managed by one of the great- 
est statesmen the world has ever seen, William Pitt, afterwards 
Earl of Chatham. He not only furnished the American army 
with money and competent 

commanders, but also man- 2;'^^> . ^ 

aged to keep the main ^ -^v- 

strength of France busily en- . " -fj'. i . 

gaged in the European strug- > > 5 ."'.,•' 

gle while English fleets were , - , ' / 

attacking her and English ^ ,.^>^ "L^-'"*"^ S' ^ 

armies were driving her from ^^' ,;^^#« .wtV^A 
both America and India. |%,Y 4-^ 

202. Five Points of Attack. ^"^ 

The physical features of the louisburg 

country and the situation of 

the French clearly indicated five points of attack: Acadia and 
Louisburg, Duquesne, Crown Point and Ticonderoga, Niagara, 
and Quebec. All of these points finally yielded. 

203. Acadia and Louisburg. Acadia was inhabited by peace- 
ful Catholic peasants. England had guaranteed them the 
free exercise of their religion and the privilege of not bearing 
arms against their French countrymen in Canada. They re- 
fused to take the oath of allegiance to England, because this 
would deprive them of these two privileges. The English 
forthwith resolved to expel them from the country, which cruel 
measure was successfully carried out. Longfellow relates the 
sad story of these unhappy exiles in his "Evangeline." 



342 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Forces under Generals Wolfe and Amherst took Louisburg 
after a severe bombardment and this made possible a naval 
attack on Quebec. 

204. Fort Duquesne. This fort was the key to the "West, 
and its capture by the English was therefore important. This 
"Gateway of the West" was at first unsuccessfully attacked 
(1755) by a combined English and colonial force under Gen- 
eral Braddock. Braddock was a brave officer, but he was 
utterly ignorant of Indian warfare, and too conceited to take 
any advice from those who were skilled in it. Despising 
Washington's suggestions, Braddock ordered his army to 
march on with drums beating and flags flying. The savages 
never met an enemy in open battle, but fired at him from be- 
hind rocks, trees, and bushes, being always on the alert to take 
him unguarded. Thus Braddock blundered into a French and 
Indian ambush near Fort Duquesne and his army was cut 
to pieces. He himself was numbered among the seven hundred 
slain. Total destruction of the army was averted only by the 
skill of Washington. A second expedition led by General 
Forbes, with Washington in command of the Virginia troops, 
captured the fort (1758). The name of the post was changed 
to Pittsburg in honor of William Pitt, the prime minister of 
England. 

205. Crown Point and Ticonderoga. These two strongholds, 
controlling the route to and from Canada, left New York 
as well as New England exposed to French invasion. The 
first expedition against Ticonderoga, in command of General 
Abercrombie suffered a disastrous defeat OAving to the ineffi- 
ciency of its commander, who tarried in the rear while the 
battle raged in front. One year after the disgraceful defeat 
of Abercrombie a large army of English under General Am- 
herst compelled the French to evacuate both Ticonderoga and 
Crown Point. 

In 1757 Montcalm had swept down from Canada and cap- 
tured the British fort, William Henry, at the head of Lake 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 143 

George. He i^romised the British troops that he would safe- 
guard their retreat to Fort Edward, but ou leaving the fort, 
the English troops were attacked by the Indians. Some sixty 
or seventy were massacred despite Montcalm's attempts to re- 
strain his savage allies. 

206. Fort Niagara. This fort, situated on the portage be- 
tween lakes Erie and Ontario, protected the great fur trade 
of the upper Lakes and the West. It finally surrendered to 




FORT NIAGARA 

the English under Sir William Johnson, who was aided by his 
friends, the Iroquois Indians. 

207. The Fall of Quebec. Quebec, the strongest fortification 
in Canada, controlled the navigation of the St. Lawrence and 
largely decided the possession of that province. This last and 
most important point, commanded by the able General Mont- 
calm, was finall}^ captured by the gallant General Wolfe after 
a desperate battle. 



144 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



Qiipbec was a strongly fortified place. The only way the 
English could gain access to it was to scale a high and almost 
perpendicular rock. Wolfe at last found a steep pathway 
leading to the summit of the fortress. Over this he succeeded 
in getting his army to the ' ' Plains of Abraham, ' ' where he sur- 
prised and captured the garrison. Both brave generals were 
slain, — Wolfe, rejoicing in his dying breath that the victory 
was his, and Montcalm thankful that he would not survive 
to see the surrender of Quebec, 




THE TAKING OF QUEBEC 

While in his boat on his way to attack Quebec Wolfe quoted 
from Gray 's Elegy : — 

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, 

And all that beauty, all that wealth e 'er gave, 

Await alike the inevitable hour. 

The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

When he had finished he said: "Gentlemen, I would rather 
be the author of that poem than to have the glory of beating 
the French tomorrow." 



INTER-COLONIAL WARS 



145 



Montcalm was buried in the chapel of the Ursuline convent. 
On the monument to Wolfe and Montcalm in Quebec are 
these words : ' ' Valor gave a united death, History a united 
fame, Posterity a united monument." 

208. Outcome of the War. The treaty of peace at Paris 
(1768) marked the close of the French and Indian War and 




^-<v, 



«S^-— u*^ ^*^ tUttJiU^ 



DEATH OF WOLFE 
From the painting l)y Benjamin West 



ended French claims and occupancy in North America. By 
this treaty : 

(a) France gave to England all the territory east of the 
Mississippi except two islands south of Newfoundland 
and to Spain all her territory west of the Mississippi ; 
(h) Spain gave Florida to England in exchange for Cuba. 

The British possessions in America now extended from the 
Gulf of Mexico to the Polar Sea and from the Mississippi River 
to the Atlantic Ocean. 

209. Pontiac's War. Immediately after the war, the Indians 
in the valley of the Great Lakes finally united under Pontiac 



146 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

against the English who lived near Detroit. The border settle- 
ments of Pennsylvania and Virginia were laid waste and hun- 
dreds of families were driven from their homes or massacred. 
After fighting desperately for a time the Indians begged for 
peace. Pontiac fled, but was killed by a Peorian Indian. This 
ended the war. 

210. Effects of the War. Besides securing for the English 
the supremacy in America, the war had many other far-reach- 
ing effects, namely : 

{a) English language, laws, and liberty were planted every- 
where on the American continent ; 
(6) a bond of union among the colonists was created; 
{c) the colonists had learned that the American troops were 
as fearless and capable as Avere the British regulars ; 

(d) a body of colonial officers was trained in the art of war. 

This training eventually served them in good stead at 
the outbreak of the Revolution ; 

(e) France, swayed by wounded pride and loss of political and 

commercial interests, volunteered to aid the colonies in 
throwing off English authority ; 
(/) .an enormous debt was created. This caused the levying of 
new taxes, and thus became the direct cause of the Rev- 
olution. 




WOLFE'S PISTOL 



CHAPTER XI 

A SUMMAKY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 

211. Extent of Colonial Territory — Population. At the close 
oC the French and Indian War (1763) the thirteen original 
colonies, now all nnder English rule, occupied a strip of land 
stretching from Maine to Florida and from the Atlantic to the 
Mississippi. The colonial population, during the one and one- 
half centuries ensuing between the founding of Jamestown 
(1607) and the close of the French and Indian War (1763) 
increased slowly but steadily to about two million souls, one- 
fourth of whom were slaves. The Mason and Dixon's line 
divided the population into nearly equal parts. Virginia was 
the most populous colony (300,000), Massachusetts was second 
in population, Pennsylvania third, and Georgia, the youngest 
colony, had the smallest population (5000). It is an important 
fact of American history that the colonial population was made 
up of a mixture of many nationalities, the mingling of which 
tended greatly toward broadening the views of the people. 
Thus was developed a thrifty and wholesome race for the 
future States and Nation. Nearly all the people in New 
England were English, though there were some French Hugue- 
nots in the cities. Some Germans settled in New York and 
the Carolinas, but the greater number of them went to Penn- 
sylvania. Many emigrants from the north of Ireland settled 
in Pennsylvania, in the Carolinas, and in Virginia. There were 
many Swedes in Delaware. The Irish were found in nearly 
every colony, but the greater number were in the middle col- 
onies. 

212. Social Rank. The colonists had come from countries 
where there were various classes of society, and had brought 

147 



148 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



with them a belief in rank. Hence lines of social rank were 
strictly drawn in most of the colonies. Although class dis- 
tinctions were manifest, it was not uncommon for a youth, 
by dint of ability, thrift, and industry, to rise from the lower 
ranks of life and take his place among the higher classes. 
The common people were styled "goodman" or "goodwife, " 
while the titles of "Mr." or "Mrs." were reserved for 




MANSION AT WESTOVER, VIRGINIA 



ministers and their wives, and the gentlefolks generally. The 
ruling class was composed, in New England, of magistrates, 
ministers, and other professional men ; in New York of the 
same classes with the addition of the patroons and great land- 
holders along the Hudson ; while in the South the owners of 
the great plantations were uppermost in society. Professional 
men ranked second to them. The middle class constituted the 



A SUMMARY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 149 

great majonty of the people, especially in the northern 
and middle colonies. This class was composed of small 
farmers, traders, shop-keepers, and fishermen, and was gen- 
erally distinguished for prosperity, good moral standards, and 
desire for education. It was, as it were, the frame-work of 
our present republic. Below the middle rank were the inden- 
tured white servants. Tliese, after serving out their term of 
forced lal)or, acquired the rights of freemen, and many of 
them merged into the great middle class and became good 
citizens. This was especially true of the class known as 
"Freewillers. " Freewillers were those indentured servants 
who, of their own free will, engaged to serve several years 
in payment of some debt or for their passage across the sea. 
The negro slave held the lowest place in society. Between 
this class and the other classes there was an almost impassable 
barrier. 

213. Negro Slavery. Slavery existed in almost all the col- 
onies. In the North, however, where slaves could not be used 
to good advantage on the small farms of New England, it 
was gradually dying out. In the middle colonies, slaves were 
not numerous. In Pennsylvania the Quakers opposed slavery 
on moral grounds; in New York and New Jersey it existed 
to a limited extent, while in Delaware it lasted until the Civil 
War. 

South of the Mason and Dixon's line negroes were particu- 
larly useful in the tobacco fields of Virginia, and the malarial 
rice fields of South Carolina. They formed about thirty per 
cent of the population in Maryland, forty per cent in Virginia, 
and sixty per cent in South (-arolina. After having been 
legally established, slavery also increased rapidly in Georgia. 
In North Carolina there were fewer slaves than in any of 
the other southern colonies, as the industries of this province 
were not well suited to slave labor. The settlers of the west- 
ern country were as highly prejudiced against slavery as were 
those of the North. 



150 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The treatment of the slaves depended largely upon the char- 
acter of those who owned them. In general, however, their 
lot was that of hopeless, abject, and crushing servitude.* Out- 
side of Maryland, Pennsylvania, and Georgia, little attempt 
was made at educating or converting the negro, since it was 
generally feared that these efforts would serve to turn him 
against his oppressor. 

In the northern and middle colonies slaves dwelt under the 
same roofs with their masters, and were employed in agricul- 
ture and domestic services. Public opinion protected them 
against cruelty. Though New England did not favor slavery, 
much of the colonial slave trade was carried on by ships from 
Massachusetts and Rhode Island. These took rum to Africa, 
in exchange for which they brought slaves to the southern 
colonies and the West Indies. 

In the South, especially in Maryland and Virginia, the slaves 
dwelt apart in clusters of wooden cabins. They were, as a 
rule, well treated. Families imbued with a Christian spirit 
took them into the family circle, where they became members 
of the household. This was notably the case in the old Cath- 
olic families of Maryland. 

Farther south, particularly in South Carolina, a severer form 
of slavery existed. Here the rich planters, in order to escape 
the malarial climate of the rice swamps, sought the sea-breezes 
of Charleston during the greater part of the year, while the 
plantations were worked by multitudes of negroes under the 
lash of hired overseers. As the conditions under which rice 
was grown proved injurious to the health of the negroes, bad 
masters found it profitable to work the slaves to the uttermost 
Avhile their strength held out, for the ever-thinning ranks 
could be speedily recruited by new supplies of savages, brought 
thither in northern and English vessels, directly from the jun- 
gles of Africa. Naturally the slaves newly procured from the 
wilds of Africa were less obedient than those born and bred 
in America, as were nearly all the slaves in Maryland and Vir- 



A SUMMARY OP COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



151 



ginia. Owing to the severity of the labor and the wildness 
of the blacks, attempts to escape and insubordination were 
common. Hence the laws in South Carolina were more odious 
and severe than those in the other colonies. Rewards were 
offered for the arrest or the killing of a fugitive slave. Fifty 
pounds was awarded for the bringing back of a runaway alive, 
while from one to ten pounds was paid for a negro scalp. 

214. Industrial Life. In New England the people engaged 
largely in whaling and fishing, shipbuilding, and trading. 
They also distilled rum from West India molasses. In the 




BOSTON IN 1743 



middle colonies, agriculture, milling and commerce, lumbering, 
and trading in furs, were the chief occupations. Iron and 
paper were also manufactured. In the southern colonies, agri- 
culture was the chief industry, especially the growing of 
tobacco, rice, and indigo. Tar and turpentine were manu- 
factured and lumbering was actively engaged in. The 
scattered conditions of the thirteen original colonies along the 
Atlantic gave rise to a large coasting trade and encouraged 
the building of vessels in all the colonies, but especially in 
New England. Here the industry was so extensive, and so 
many ships were built, that the shipbuilders of Great Britain 



152 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



complained that the Americans were ruining their business. 
This seafaring life naturally developed a hardy and expert 
body of sailors, and eventually furnished the nation with naval 
heroes, foremost among whom may be mentioned John Barry 
and Paul Jones of Revolutionary fame. 

215. The Growth of Towns. We have seen that in the South 
the planters lived great distances apart along the rivers. Each 
planter had his own wharf, and goods could be bought and 
exchanged at his very door. This condition retarded the 
growth of towns in the South. Baltimore was the only city 




BALTIMORE IN 1752 



of importance in the tobacco country, and Charleston in the 
rice province. On the other hand, the political and industrial 
conditions of New England and the middle colonies occasioned 
the growth of numerous towns. Philadelphia was the largest. 
New York second, and Boston third. 

216. Commerce. The colonists traded with Spain, France, 
the Netherlands, and Portugal, in spite of the Navigation Acts. 
They also traded extensively with the West Indies. The prin- 
cipal articles of export were : from the New England col- 
onies — rum, salt fish, flour, and iron ; from the middle col- 



A SUMMARY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 153 

onies — fir, lumber, iron, and paper; from the southern colonies 
— tobacco, rice, indigo, tar, turpentine, lumber, and staves. 
The principal articles of import were : from England — hard- 
ware, glass; crockery, clothing, furniture, and household uten- 
sils; from the West Indies — sugar, molasses, and cotton. 

217. Weights — Measures — Money. The colonies for a long 
time had the same weights, measures, and money as were cur- 
rent in England. The earliest coin made in America was the 
Pine Tree Shilling, which was issued at Boston (1652). Money, 
however, for the reason that the imports from England were 
worth more than the exports to England, was very scarce 
and domestic trade was mostly by barter. As a result the 
colonists were obliged to pay out more cash to England than 
was really put in circulation by England in her colonies. 




PINE TREE SHILLING 



218. Travel — Communication. Travel in colonial days over- 
land was by foot, horseback, or stage-coach. Twice a week, 
covered lumber wagons traversed the distance between New 
York and Philadelphia. Later a stage-coach called the "Fly- 
ing Machine," made the trip in two days, and the journey 
from Boston to New York in four days. Passengers were fre- 
quently called upon to alight and help pry the coach-wheels 
out of the mire. The roads were generally poor, and as only 
a few of the rivers had bridges, people preferred to journey 
by water if possible. The rivers, lakes, and bays were 
traversed by means of flat ferries and row-boats, while along 
the coast traveling was done in coasting sloops. The journey 
from New York to Philadelphia took three days in good 
weather. To cross the Atlantic required from a month to seven 



154 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



weeks and sometimes even three months. Consequently the 
colonists had poor means of communication. It required more 
time then to go from Boston to Virginia than it does now to 
go from Boston to England. 

The mail was carried by a post-rider on horseback, who fol- 
lowed the main roads as far as there were any and then found 
his way to the roadless settlements as best he could by way 
of Indian trails and bridle paths. There were never more than 
three mails a week between large towns, while remote settle- 
ments were fortunate if they received mail once a month. In 
time a post-ofifice system was established, and Benjamin Frank- 




A POST-RIDER 



lin, organizer (1754) of the system, made a five months' tour 
of the country in his chaise, perfecting and maturing the plan. 
It took him nearly six months to make the trip which could now 
be made in less than a week. Not infrequently postage 
amounted to twenty-five cents per letter. As a result people 
wrote rarely to each other. They were, therefore, eager to 
hospitably entertain any chance traveler, in order to hear from 
him the latest news and gossip. 



A SUMMARY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 155 

219. Colonial Forms of Government. The colonies, with re- 
spect to their government, were divided into three classes, — 
charter, proprietary, and royal. At the time of the Revolution 
there were three charter colonies, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
and Connecticut ; three proprietary, Maryland, Pennsylvania, 
and Delaware ; and seven royal, Virginia, the Carolinas, New 
Hampshire, New York, New Jersey, and Georgia. 

Only two of the colonies, Rhode Island and Connecticut, re- 
tained their original form of government throughout the colo- 
nial period. The chief differences in these three groups lay 
in their method of choosing the governor. This officer was 
elected by the people in the charter colonies (except Massa- 
chusetts after 1684), appointed by the proprietor in the pro- 
prietary colonies, and by the king in the royal colonies. 

The government in each colony was composed of three de- 
partments vested in : — the governor, the council, and the 
assembly. The governor represented either the king or the 
proprietor (except in Rhode Island and Connecticut), and had 
a difficult position, as his duty toward the people frequently 
conflicted with that toward the king. His powers Avere exten- 
sive. He had the right of veto over the acts of the legisla- 
ture, he was in command of the militia, and he had the right 
to appoint the officials. He could not, however, tax the peo- 
ple. The council was composed of several, usually twelve, dis- 
tinguished residents of the colonies, who received their ap- 
pointment from the same power that appointed the governor. 
Its threefold duties made it a board of advisers of the gov- 
ernor; the upper division of the legislature, or lawmaking 
body, and frequently the highest court of the colonies. The 
assembly, whose members were elected by the people in all 
the colonies, was the lower and larger branch of the legisla- 
ture; it had much to do in making the laws, which, however, 
could be vetoed by the governor. If sanctioned by him, they 
could be cancelled by the king or the proprietor. The assem- 
bly also had the sole power of taxing the peojDle, and it often 



156 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

forced the governor to yield to its demands by withholding 
his salary. The justice of the peace, usually appointed by the 
governor, presided at petty and civil trials only. The county 
courts tried civil cases, involving small sums, and minor crim- 
inal cases. The highest court was composed of the governor 
and the council. Appeals, however, could be made to the 
Privy Coinicil of England. 

In the northern colonies the town, or township, was the unit 
of local government. Once a year at least the voters of the 
town Avould meet, choose their own officers for the next year, 
and decide all questions which came up about the affairs of 
the town, such as schools, roads, and taxes. They also chose 
persons to rei)resent the town in the Colonial Legislature, which 
met at the chief town, where the interests of the whole colony 
were discussed. In the South the county, subdivided into 
parishes, was the unit of local government. The business was 
done by the county court, composed of the county officers. The 
chief county officer was the sheriff appointed by the governor. 
In South Carolina there were neither counties nor townships, 
but only parishes. In Maryland the township was originally 
known as "The Hundred." 

220. Religion in the Colonies. The colonies were, as a rule, 
settled by religious-minded men, and the desire for religious 
liberty entered more or less into the motives of many of the 
colony builders, notably those who founded Massachusetts, 
Maryland, Rhode Island, and Pennsylvania. Although the 
religious element was less pronounced in Virginia than in 
New England, it was present. In fact, it was recognized in 
every colony throughout the colonial, period. Calvinism was 
the most widely spread religious doctrine. It prevailed in 
New England as Congregationalism; in New York it took the 
form of the Dutch Reformed Church ; among Scotch-Irish and 
the French Huguenots settling in Virginia and the Carolinas 
it was known as Presbyterianism. The Church of England, 
though numerically in the minority, was supported by general 



A SUMMARY OP COLONIAL DEVKLOPMENT 157 

taxes in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Maryland, and its influ- 
ence was marked in New York. The Swedish Lutherans and 
German Baptists were imi^ortant factors in the population of 
Pennsylvania, in which colony, owing to its benign laws, there 
was the greatest variety of races and religions. 

Catholics were inimerous in Maryland and well represented 
among the Germans in Pennsylvania, but elsewhere they con- 
stituted only an insignificant handfnl. The Catholic Church 
in the United States at the time of the Revolution comprised 
scarcely twenty-five thousand souls. There were about twenty- 
five priests scattered here and there, and no bishops. No Cath- 
olic college or school, no convent, hospital, or asylum existed. 
In spite of the difficulties encountered by the colonial Catholics, 
the Faith was preserved. By the permission of Queen Anne, 
the Catholics of Maryland celebrated Holy Mass in private 
houses, and the Jesuits, ever loyal to the colony which they 
helped to found, ministered to the widely spread flocks of 
Maryland as well as to the few Catholics in Virginia. The 
regular congregations of Catholics existing in tolerant Penn- 
sylvania and parts of New Jersey were also in charge of the 
Jesuits (Fathers Schneider and Farmer). A small congrega- 
tion of Catholics in New York was attended by the Reverend 
John McKenna, the first resident priest in the province since 
the time of Dongan. 

221. Religious Intolerance. The colonial white population 
was Christian, though distributed among a great variety of 
conflicting churches. More than one sect, strong in the power 
of the secular arm, bore heavily upon those of another belief; 
consequently the colonies were the seats of fierce religious 
fanaticism (notably in New England, especially Massachu- 
setts). The colony most free from religious strifes and its 
resultant woes, was Pennsylvania, where many religious sys- 
tems flourished side by side. The colonial times were dark and 
intolerant for Catholics. They were proscribed, loaded with 
heavy taxes, and deprived of civil rights. But the close of the 



158 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

colonial period marked the dawn of a higher civilization based 
on religions as well as civil and political liberty, on popnlar 
education, and equality for all men ; — an era in which Roman 
Catholics and Protestants fought side by side in war. The 
one object, national independence, crowding in the background 
all other interests, brought together in council chamber and 
camp the cream of the population. The austere Puritan of 
New England and the Virginian Anglican learned to make due 
allowance each for the other's personal views. From this same 
motive colonists were content to forget their prejudices against 
Roman Catholics and to welcome with open arms all ''Papists" 
who would enroll under their standard. 

222. Education. It has been seen, while studying the sev- 
eral colonies, that in New England the people (Puritans) 
valued education next to religion and almost as a part of it. 
Hence they early established free schools and colleges. In the 
middle colonies the Dutch provided educational facilities simul- 
taneously with the establishment of their patroonships ; and pro- 
vision for education constituted a joart of Penn's plan for 
governing his colony. The South was slow in advancing the 
cause of education, owing to unfavorable government and 
to the scattered condition of the population. The richer class, 
however, employed private tutors to teach their children, or in 
some cases sent them to England to be educated. The poorer 
classes had scarcely any educational opportunities. 

In the New England and in the middle colonies the district 
schools were kept for two months in winter by a man, and for 
two months in summer by a woman. The boys usually attended 
in winter and the girls in summer. Pupils were given a limited 
instruction in reading, writing, and arithmetic, in return for 
which the teacher received a small amount of money and 
"boarded round." 

223. Colonial Literature. American literature was yet in its 
infancy. The literary men who were to give reputation to 
American letters within the next half century were not yet 



A SUMMARY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 159 

born. The first book written in the colonies was John Smith's 
True Relation of Virginia (1608), It is a book of travel in 
which are described the occurrences and incidents of note, rela- 
tive to the early history of Virginia. Cotton Mather's Mag- 
nalia, a religious history of New England, is one of the first 
important books written by an American author. The Mather 
family were great scholars and remarkable preachers. Richard 
Mather, his famous son, Increase Mather, and his still more 
famous grandson, Cotton Mather, formed a growing power in 
New England life and thought for more than one hundred 
years. They produced, in all, between five and six hundred 
works. Father Andrew White, S. J., whose name is familiar 
in the annals of Maryland and shines so brightly in the pages 
of American history as a writer, is especially noted for his 
History of Maryland, and a Grammar and Dictionary of the 
English language. Jonathan Edwards was another distin- 
guished New England author. His most notable work is an 
essaj^ entitled Inquiry into the Freedom of the Will. In this 
essay, the writer holds that the human wall is not free. This 
principle, of course, is false and was borrowed from Calvinism, 
in which the author believed. The colonial writer of greatest 
distinction is preeminently Benjamin Franklin. His best pro- 
duction during the colonial period was a collection of wise 
sayings, which he published every year under the title of 
Poor Richard's Almanac, the successive numbers of which 
were afterwards abridged and printed in one volume, under 
the title of On the Way to Wealth. Besides this are many 
other writings, most important of which are his Autobiography, 
various state papers, and essays on electricity. Franklin's 
Almanac received its name from the fact that in it the author 
represents a curious old fellow, whom he calls Poor Richard, as 
uttering the sayings. People still read with pleasure such 
sayings as : 

"He that hatli a trade liath an estate." 

"A little iiegle t will breathe great mischief." 



160 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

' ' Diligence is the mother of good luck. ' ' 
' ' One today is worth two tomorrows. ' ' 
"Constant dropping wears away stones." 
' ' He that riseth late must trot all day. ' ' 
"Early to bed and early to rise, 
Makes men healthy, wealthy, and wise." 

The first among the historical writers is William Bradford 
(1590-1657). His most important work is his History of Plym- 
outh, in which he gives a clear account of the early history 
of that colony up to 1649. Next to Bradford may be placed 
John Winthrop (1588-1649), the governor and historian of 
Massachusetts Bay Colony. He is especially noted for his 
History of New England, really a journal of every day hap- 
penings. "The Boston Weekly News Letter," established in 
1704, was the first permanent newspaper in the colonies. "The 
Pennsylvania Packet," founded in 1784, was the first daily 
newspaper. Newspapers were small and poorly printed. The 
chief contents M'ere bits of poetry, advertisements for runaway 
slaves and servants, notices of the arrivals of cargoes, a sum- 
mary of the news from London and Paris, and lengthy articles 
on politics and morals. 

224. Colonial Art. The American artists of this period were 
the two historical painters, John Copley (1737-1815) and Ben- 
jamin West (1738-1820), and the great portrait painter Gil- 
bert Stuart (1755-1828). Owing to the poor support given to 
artists in America at the time, they lived abroad, and each 
gained a reputation in England. Copley's most noted portraits 
are of the English royal family; West's most celebrated paint- 
ing is the death of General Wolfe, and Stuart's, a portrait of 
Washington. 

225. Medicine and Law — Charitable Institutions. The prac- 
tice of medicine was yet in a crude state. The village doctor 
was an important personage. His education usually consisted 
of a short apprenticeship with some noted physician. The 
legal profession rose to preeminence during the colonial period, 



A SUMMARY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 



161 



especially on the eve of the Revolutionary era. While study- 
ing the next epoch, it will be noted how many of the men, 
prominent in bringing about the separation from England, 
were lawyers (James Otis, James Madison, Thomas Jefferson, 
Patrick Henry). 

In the colonies, as elsewhere in the world, the sick and other 
dependent people received little attention. There were only a 
few hospitals. Insane persons were imprisoned in underground 
cells and brutally treated. Prisoners (except in Pennsylvania) 
were crowded together in loathsome dungeons, no matter what 
might be the degree of crime charged 
against them. 

226. The Household. The New Eng- 
landers and the middle colonists (with 
the exception of the New York settlers) 
lived in a primitive manner in log 
cabins. Eventually solidly built houses 
of heavy oak timber took the place of 
these dwellings. There were few stoves, 
and large open fireplaces, over or be- 
fore which the cooking was done, were 
used. The kitchen, seldom more than 
seven feet high, was the chief apart- 
ment. Huge bunches of seed corU; and 
long strings of apples and onions were suspended from the 
ceiling. The walls of the rooms of the better buildings were 
plastered and whitewashed. The furniture usually included 
a tall wooden clock and a dresser on which were the pewter 
dishes brought from England. Nearly every home had a spin- 
ning wheel, and a loom for weaving. The food was simple, 
consisting in most instances of mush and molasses, corn cakes, 
and potatoes. 

The middle class of the South dwelt in houses resembling 
those constructed in the North, but the rich lived in stately 
mansions having vine-clad verandas and balconies, within 




SPINNING WHEEL 



162 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



which the music of the harpsichord was oftener heard than 
the hum of the spinning-wheel. The kitchen and the laundry 
stood apart from the mansion. The negroes dwelt in clusters 
of wooden cabins located at convenient distances from the 
residence. Black slaves performed all the domestic labors. 

227. Amusements. The New Englanders had few enjoy- 
ments. During the long winter evenings the mothers and 
daughters would sit by the fireside with their spinning, knit- 
ting, and quilting, while the father read his Bible or smoked 

his pipe. Sometimes cider- 
drinking, nut-cracking, and 
story telling helped to while 
away the evening hours. The 
young people, however, were 
not without their amusements, 
such as house raising, dancing, 
and corn-husking parties, and 
social gatherings for spin- 
ning, quilting, and apple-par- 
ing. The chief holiday was 
Thanksgiving. Christmas was 
not observed because of the 
Puritan aversion for the 
Church of England. In the 
middle colonies, people were 
more social and fonder of 
merry-making than in New 
England. In the country 
spinning-bees, corn-husking, house raising, and dancing parties 
were favorite amusements. In towns, horse-racing, cock-fight- 
ing, balls, and picnics, were greatly enjoyed. The chief holi- 
days were Christmas, New Year's, St. Valentine's Day, Easter, 
and May Day. In the South, the planters, with their choice 
dogs, blooded horses, and coaehes-and-six, lived in wasteful 
extravagance. The southerner was fond of such sports as fox- 




PURITAN COSTUMES 



A SUMMARY OF COLONIAL DEVELOPMENT 163 

lumtiiig and horse-racing. He was generous and hospitable, 
and his house was always open to the respectable traveler. 
Christmas was the great holiday of the year. On this day 
everything was gay and bright in the planter's house. 

228. Colonial Differences. The thirteen original colonies, 
though thirteen distinct governments, had very nuich in com- 
mon. They were notably Englisli colonies, obeyed English 
laws, and called the English sovereign their king. They traded 
Avith one another, kept in touch one with the other by means 
of letters and newspapers, and moved from one colony to 
another. Still we have seen, while studying the thirteen orig- 
inal colonies in divisions of three groups, that the dwellers of 
the various parts of the country differed greatly from one 
another in respect to government, enterprise, religion, and 
spirit. The difference in the main, however, was that between 
the Cavaliers and the Puritans. These planted, as it were, two 
distinct civilizations, the one on the James River, containing 
the germs of Monarchism, and the other on Plymouth Rock 
containing the germs of Republicanism. The former colonized 
and settled the southern states, the latter the northern and 
northwestern. In time these two civilizations, so radically dif- 
ferent, met and clashed on the question of slavery and state- 
rights in the great Civil War. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 

1607-1649 

James I and Charles I reign in England. 
Richelieu, minister of Louis XIII, rules in France. 
Religious wars rage in Germany and France. 

James I (1603-1625). 

1607. Virginia (1) is settled by the London Company at 
Jamestown. 

1608. Quebec is founded by the French. 

1609. Champlain discovers Lake Champlain. 
Henry Hudson discovers the Hudson River. 

1610. Hudson discovers Hudson Bay and perishes in its 
waters. 

Starving time in Virginia. 

1613. Argall destroys the Mount Desert Island and Acadian 
settlements. 

1614. New York (2) is settled at New Amsterdam by the 
Dutch. 

1619. Negro slavery is introduced into Virginia. 

The first representative assembly in America, the 
House of Burgesses, is organized. 

1620. Massachusetts (3) is settled at Plymouth by the 
Pilgrims. 

1621. Thanksgiving Day originates. 

1622. Indian massacre occurs in Virginia. 

1623. New Hampshire (4) is settled at Dover and Ports- 
mouth by the English. 

Charles I (1625-1649). 

1628. Salem, second Massachusetts settlement, is founded. 
1629-1630. The Massachusetts Bay Company in America. 
Boston and other Massachusetts Bay colonies are 
founded. 
1633. Connecticut (5) is founded at Windsor by Massachu- 
setts colonists. 

164 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 165 

1634. Maryland (6) is settled at St. Mary's by English 
Roman Catholics. 

1634-1636. Connecticut settlements are founded at Wethers- 
field, Hartford, and Saybrook. 

1636. Rhode Island (7) is founded at Providence by Roger 
Williams. 

Harvard College is founded. 

1637. Pequot war in Connecticut. 

1638. Delaware (8) is founded at Wilmington by the 
Swedes. 

1639. First printing press of the English colonies is set up 
in Cambridge, Mass. 

1643. Four New England colonies form a league known as 

the New England Confederacy. 
1649. Execution of Charles I. 
1649-1660. Puritan rule of the Commonwealth in England. 

Louis XIV reigns in France. 

1660-1689 
Charles II (1660-1685). 

1662. Connecticut secures a charter. 

1663. Rhode Island secures a charter. 

1664. New Amsterdam conquered by English. 

1664. New Jersey is granted to Berkeley and Carteret. 

1675-1676. King Philip's War. 

1676. Bacon's Rebellion occurs in Virginia. 

1681. William Penn secures grant of Pennsylvania. 

1682. Philadelphia is founded. 

1684. Massachusetts loses its charter. 
James II (1685-1689). 

1686. Andros is made governor of New England. 

1689-1714 

War between England and France, and as a consequence war between 
the French and English colonies in America, known as King William's 
and Queen Anne's Wars. 



166 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

William III and Mary (1689-1702). 

1689. Leisler's Kebellion occurs in New York. 
1689-1697. King William's W^ar. 

1692. Salem Witchcraft delusion occurs in New England. 

1693. W^illiam and Mary College opens at Jamestown, Va. 

1694. St. John's College is founded at Annapolis, Md. 
Queen Anne (1702-1714). 

1701. Yale College is founded at New Haven, Conn. 

1702-1713. Queen Anne's War. 

1704. First weekly newspaper begins at Boston, Mass. 

1714-1763 

George I, George II, aud George III reign in England ; Louis XV in 

France. 
George I (1714-1727). 

1724. P'ather Easle is killed. 
George II (1727-1760). 

1732. George Washington is born in Virginia, February 22. 

1733. Georgia (13) is settled at Savannah, by English debt- 
ors under James Oglethorpe. 

1741. Supposed Negro Plot in New York. 

1744-1748. King George's War. 

Jonathan Edwards preaches and writes in New Eng- 
land. 

Benjamin Franklin begins to write and make experi- 
ments with electricity. 

1746. Princeton College opens at Newark, N. J. 

1754-1763. French and Indian War. 

1759. Quebec is taken by the English. 

The great Generals, Wolfe and Montcalm, die. 
George III (1760-1820). 

1763. The treaty of peace at Paris ends the French and 
Indian War. 

1763-1767. Boundary line between Maryland and Virginia 
is settled by two surveyors. Mason and Dixon. 




PERIOD OF THE REVOLUTION AND THE 
CONFEDERATION 



CHAPTER XII 

PKELIMINAEIES OF THE WAE 

229. Extent of the Period. The period of the Revolution and 
the Confederation extends from the breaking out of the Revo- 
hitionary war (1775) to the beginning of the government under 
the Constitution (1789). The important events of this period 
are the resistance of the colonists to taxation, the various 
events of the Revolution, final independence, and the forma- 
tion and adoption of a national Constitution. 

230. The Mother Country and Her Colonies. The treaty of 
Paris (1763) marked not only the end of the French claims and 
possessions in America, but also the beginning of the end of 
.England's sway over her American colonies. The French, 
dwelling to the north and west, held their territory, as it were, 
by two exti'emes, the mouths of its two great rivers, Avhile 
the colonies needed the protection of the mother country ; the 
mother country, on the other hand, refrained from too great 
an irritation of her colonies, lest they should make common 
cause with the French against her. When the French prime 
minister signed the cession of nearly half of North America to 

167 



i ^' 

168 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the English he said: "We have caught them at last." An- 
other French nobleman predicted : ' ' England will soon repent 
of having removed the only check which kept her colonies in 
awe. They stand no longer in need of her protection ; she will 
call upon them to contribute toward supporting the burdens 
they have helped to bring upon her, and they will answer by 
striking off all dependence." 

In our study of the colonies, we have seen that constant and 
growing friction existed between the royal governors repre- 
senting the king, and the colonial legislatures representing the 
people. This fact naturally embittered the colonists against 
the British government. In the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries, the object of Europeans in planting a colony was to 
create a dependent community for the purpose of trading with 
it. Great Britain regarded her colonies chiefly as market places 
for her goods. Accordingly, the laws she made in regulating 
colonial trade were based on the principle that the colonies 
existed for the benefit of the mother country. 

231. Laws Restricting- Trade and Manufacture. The Navi- 
gation Acts restricted colonial commerce for the benefit of 
English merchants. Under these laws: 
(a) the colonies could trade only with the mother country and 

her dependencies ; 
(6) all imports had to pass through English ports; 

(c) certain exports — tobacco, sugar, furs, copper, indigo, etc. 

— had to be sold in British markets; 

[d) duties were imposed on articles shipped to England as 

well as on all trade between the colonies. 
To protect the English West India sugar-producing islands, 
the Sugar Act imposed a duty on sugar and molasses imported 
into the colonies from the French islands in the West Indies. 
The Sugar Act (1733) was one of the harshest laws suppressing 
colonial trade. The prosperity of New England depended, for 
the most part, on its West India trade, in which flour, lumber, 
and fish were exchanged for molasses and sugar. Molasses and 



K^ 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 



169 



sugar were manufactured into rum, and this again was taken 
to Africa and exchanged for slaves to be sold to the southern 
colonists. 

Some of the northern colonies took to manufacturing, which 
industry again led Parliament to restrict colonial manufactur- 
ing. New York made a great many fur hats. Parliament, 
accordingly, forbade entirely the exportation of hats. 

232. England and Her Colonies Had Grown Apart. All these 
laws had been passed before the French and Indian War. 
They were, however, not 
very strictly enforced, and 
much smuggling was in- 
dulged in. Nine-tenths of all 
the tea and other articles 
of consumption were smug- 
gled. Colonial trade con- 
tinued to flourish, and large 
41 fortunes were made. Hence, 
complaints were not as loud 
as they might have- been, and 
no serious opposition arose. 
As during the French and 
Indian War a common cause 
united the colonies with 
England against a common 
enemy, so past strifes were 
somewhat forgotten, and a 
new spirit of loyalty and 
devotion to the mother country sprang up. Still, the two 
peoples had unconsciously grown apart. The American colo- 
nists had learned to govern themselves without the aid of 
England. They no longer felt the need of protection against 
the French. The late conflict had given them confidence in 
themselves and had schooled them in the art of war. Therefore 
the bond between Great Britain and her colonies was a weak one. 




GEORGE III 



170 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

233. Policy of George III — Unwise Measures. King George 
III came to the tlirone of England toward the close of the 
French and Indian War (1760). He foolishly pushed aside 
the great statesmen he fonnd in office, and surrounded himself 
by inferior men, who came to be known as the "King's 
friends." These men, by bribes, threats, and favors, could be 
influenced to do the king's bidding. He at once determined 
to enforce the navigation laws and put an end to smuggling, 
He also expected the colonies to help in the payment of the 
heavy debt created by the French and Indian War. 

234. Writs of Assistance. To put an end to smuggling and 
to enforce the old laws, the new English government now 
issued ' ' Writs of Assistance. ' ' These were legal papers giving 
the king's officers the right to enter any house or shop at any 
time to search for smuggled goods. When the officers enforced 
this right in Boston, appeal was made by the colonists to the 
court. The court's decision was against them, but the trial 
became famous on account of the eloquent speeches of James 
Otis, a young lawyer. From one of his memorable speeches 
may be quoted: "A man's house is his castle; and whilst he 
is quiet he is as well guarded as a prince in his castle." 
"Every one with this writ may be a tyrant." John Adams, 
who had heard the young lawyer's famous speech, said that 
Otis was like a flame of fire, and that his oration breathed into 
the nation the breath of life, and that then and there inde- 
pendence was born. 

The English government, failing to prevent smuggling by 
the Writs of Assistance, stationed ships of war along the 
American coast. Vessels and cargoes were seized and the 
American West India trade was greatly injured. Many smug- 
glers were caught and tried by admiralty courts without jury. 
This, the colonies claimed, was a violation of the oldest English 
rights. 

235. The Parsons' Cause. By the law of Virginia, prior to 
1755, the salaries of the clergy were paid in tobacco, but by an 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 171 

act of the House of Burgesses, passed in that year, the salaries 
might be paid in paper money. When the value of tobacco 
increased the clergy were displeased with the law and appealed 
to the king to veto it, which he did. During the progress of a 
suit brought by a clergyman for back pay Patrick Henry de- 
clared that the king, by annulling laws made for the good of 
the people, had degenerated into a tyrant, and forfeited all 
right to the obedience of his subjects. Nevertheless, under the 
ruling of the court, damages were awarded to the parson. 
In this ease and that of the Writs of Assistance, Patrick Henry 
and James Otis did much toward weakening the sentiment of 
loyalty in the colonies. 

236, Taxation and Representation. "No taxation without 
representation" was the principle which the English people 
had adopted after a succession of revolutionary events during 
the long course of centuries. In the reign of George III, how- 
ever, representation was still very imperfect. For more than 
two hundred years there had been no redistribution of seats 
in the House of Commons. Small towns of not more than half 
a dozen voters sometimes sent two members to Parliament, 
simply because they had always sent them ; while many of the 
populous manufacturing cities that had grown up in recent 
years, such as Manchester, Birmingham, Sheffield, and Leeds, 
had no representation at all. Consequently the theory came 
to be held that every member of Parliament, no matter by 
whom elected, represented all the people of the kingdom. So 
George III and his "friends" could not see why Boston, New 
York, and Philadelphia should object to taxation, when, for 
instance, such cities as Manchester and Birmingham did not. 
Therefore the king stubbornly insisted that if the colonies 
opposed taxation they must simply be forced into obedience, 
for he justly feared that if the Americans should succeed in 
securing "no taxation without representation" England might 
also demand and secure the same. This would mean the cer- 
tain failure of the king's scheme of personal government. 



172 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

237. Political Parties. By reason of the poor system of 
rei^resentation, Parliament did not truly represent the people 
of England, but rather a group of powerful personages known 
as the Old Whigs, who could buy up enough seats to control 
the majority of votes. This political party ruled England 
during the reign of the first two Georges. It was in favor of 
taking power from the crown and vesting it in the people repre- 
sented by Parliament. In America the Whigs favored the cause 
of liberty and were zealous in supporting the colonies against 
the injustice of the British Parliament. The Tories, or Royalists, 
in opposition to the Whigs, supported the crown. Their policy 
was to strengthen the power of the king and reduce that of 
Parliament. In America, the Tories were the supporters of 
the British government. They were most numerous in the 
South, in New York, and in New Jersey. They generally be- 
longed to Avhat was called the "higher class," including 
wealthy families and persons holding office under the British 
government. 

The new Whigs, led by William Pitt, the great commoner, 
were opposed to both the Old Whigs and the Tories. Their 
aim was to make Parliament really represent the people, and 
in view of this, they advocated a redistribution of seats in the 
House of Commons. "No taxation without representation," 
the watchword of William Pitt in regard to Birmingham and 
Leeds, was re-echoed in America by Patrick Henry and Samuel 
Adams in behalf of the colonies. 

According to the British constitution taxes could be imposed 
only by the representatives of the whole nation; the colonists 
insisting upon their rights as Englishmen, declared that as 
they were not represented in the English Parliament, they could 
not bo legally taxed by it. They were, however, not unwilling 
to contribute to the mother country in ease the latter would 
permit them to be taxed by their own assemblies. 

Even in England some of the greatest and wisest men, led 
by William Pitt, Edmund Burke, and Colonel Barre, supported 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 



173 



the claims of the colonies. Pitt claimed that it was not right 
to tax the colonies, while Burke said it was not wise. The 
latter thought it would be as difficult a task for the king to 
tax the colonies against their will as it was for the farmer 
who tried to shear a wolf instead of a sheep. 

238. The Stamp Act. Adhering to her right to tax the col- 
onies, England now passed the Stamp Act (1765) in order to 
raise money for the sup- 
port of a standing army 
in the colonies. The 
Stamp Act required 
that all legal documents 
(notes, bonds, deeds, 
mortgages, licenses) 
and newspapers must 
be printed on paper 
bearing government 
stamps, the cost of 
which varied from one 
cent to fifty dollars. 
The king thought that 
the stamp tax was not 
only less annoying than 
any other kind of tax, 
but that it would also 
prove very effective in 
raising money, since it 
would enforce itself. 

The Stamp Act aroused a storm of angry opposition through- 
out the colonies. The colonists loudly declared that "taxation 
without representation is tyranny, ' ' and that Parliament could 
tax them only by the consent of the colonial assemblies. Samuel 
Adams and James Otis in Massachusetts, and Patrick Henry 
in Virginia, with overpowering eloquence, stirred up resistance 
to the Stamp Act throughout the colonies. In the Virginia 




PATRICK HENRY 



174 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

legislature, Patrick Henry, in an exciting debate, declared 
that the British king had acted the part of a tyrant. Then he 
exclaimed : ' ' Caesar had his Brutus, Charles the First his 
Cromwell, and George the Third" — "Treason! Treason!" 
shouted one of the members. Patrick Henry paused a moment, 
and then calmly added, "may profit by their examples. If this 
be treason, make the most of it." 

"The Sons of Liberty," a patriotic society, was organized 
to resist the Stamp Act. Benjamin Franklin, the American 
agent at London, wrote: "The sun of liberty has set; now 
we must light the lamp of industry and economy." The colo- 
nial women, understanding his words, formed themselves into 
societies called "Daughters of Liberty." These patriotic 
women agreed to buy no more goods imported from England. 
They spun yarn from which they wove cloth and knitted 
stockings for the men to wear. Instead of imported tea they 
used dried rasi)bei'ry leaves at their tea parties. 

239. The Stamp Act Congress. Uniting in resistance against 
the Stamp Act, twenty-eight delegates, representing nine of 
the thirteen colonies, convened in New York City (1765). They 
sat for three weeks and framed the "Declaration of Rights," 
a loyal address to their king, and a petition to Parliament. 
The Declaration of Rights, written by John Dickinson, asserted : 
(a) that the colonists owed the same allegiance to the croAvn 

as other Englishmen ; 
(&) that they were entitled to all the rights and liberties of 
natural born subjects ; 

(c) that it was an undoubted right of Englislimen to be taxed 

only by their own representatives ; 

(d) that the people in the colonies could not be represented in 

Parliament ; 

(e) that no taxes ever had been or could be constitutionally 

imposed on them but by their respective legislatures; 
(/) that trial by jury and the right to petition were the privi- 
leges of every British subject. 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 175 

The day on which the Stamp Act was to go into effect was 
made a day of mourning. Bells were tolled, flags were low- 
ered, and business houses were closed, to indicate that Liberty 
was dead. The stamp officers were mobbed, the stamps were 
destroyed, and editors published their newspapers decorated 
with skull and cross-bones instead of stamps. There was a 
general agreement that unstamped documents should be ac- 
cepted. England, seeing her mistake, now speedily repealed 
the Stamp Act (1766) after a fierce debate in Parliament. At 
the same time, however, was passed what is known as the 
Declaratory Act, wiiich stated that Parliament had a right to 
make whatever law it pleased. Hence, only the difficulty, not 
the cause, w^as removed, and nothing was gained on the part 
of the colonies but a temporary relief from the tax. 

While the repeal of the Stamp Act was under consideration 
in the English Parliament, Benjamin Franklin, who was highly 
esteemed for his good sense, was in London, and, when con- 
sulted, said that the Americans would never submit to the 
Stamp Act. When asked whether he thought the people would 
pay for the damage done by the destruction of the stamped 
paper, if Parliament should repeal the Stamp Act, he made 
answer with the following story : A Frenchman, rushing into 
the street with a redhot poker in his hand, met an Englishman 
to whom he said, "Will you let me run this poker a foot into 
you?" "What!" said the Englishman. "Well, six inches, 
then? Never!" "Then will you pay me for the trouble and 
expense of heating the poker?" The Englishman walked away. 

240. The Townshend Acts. The Stamp Act was followed by 
the Townshend Acts (1767), so named from their author. They 
imposed taxes on glass, lead, paper, painters' colors, and tea. 
The money thus collected was to be used to pay the salaries 
of the crown officers in the colonies and to support a standing 
army in America. These acts were as hateful to the people 
as the Stamp Act had been, and for the same reasons — that the 
colonies woidd not be taxed except by the vote of their assem- 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



/ies, and that they would not pay taxes whose real purpose 
A^as to deprive them of their liberties. Consequently the col- 
onists resisted promptly and decisively, and pledged themselves 
to import no English goods. They smuggled tea from Holland 

and other supplies from 
France and Spain. A circu- 
lar letter, penned by Samuel 
Adams and passed- by the 
Massachusetts assembly, was 
sent to other colonies. It re- 
asserted the rights of the col- 
onists and appealed for uni- 
ted action in opposing the 
taxes. Massachusetts was 
ordered by the royal gover- 
nor to recall the letter. She 
refused to do so, whereupon 
her legislature was dissolved. 
Everywhere a similar spirit 
of opposition prevailed. 
Some of "the colonies replied 
favorably to the circular 
letter and their assemblies 
also were dissolved. In Mas- 
sachusetts, when the assembly was dismissed, its work was 
continued by the Boston town meeting in Faneuil Hall, which 
came to be called the "Cradle of Liberty." When Faneuil 
Hall was too small, the meeting used to adjourn to the Old 
South Church. Public feeling was still more intensified 
and united by what was known as the "Farmer's Letters," 
a remarkable series of papers Avritten by John Dickinson, a 
member of the Pennsylvania Assembly, in defense of the rights 
of the people. 

241. The Mutiny Act — Boston Massacre. Two British regi- 
ments were ordered to Boston to assist in enforcing the new 




FANEUIL HALL TODAY 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 



177 



tax laws and to hold themselves in readiness to carry the king's 
bidding into effect (1768). To be taxed and menaced by royal 
troops was bad enough for the Americans, but the Mutiny Act, 
ordering that the colonies should provide the troops with food 
and shelter — should support armed oppressors — was unendur- 
able. The presence of the 
troops was very offensive to 
the people, and unseemly 
fights became an almost daily 
occurrence. One evening, in 
Boston, a false alarm of tire 
brought a crowd of men and 
boys together. The city 
guard was insulted and a 
fight ensued in which about 
a dozen men were killed or 
wounded (1770). The 
Boston Massacre greatly 
widened the breach between 
England and her colonies. 
A mass meeting was held in 
the Old South Church. 

Samuel Adams, the Father of the Revolution, was spokesman. 
As a result of the meeting the governor was ordered to with- 
draw the soldiers, and, thinking it imprudent to refuse, he 
removed them to an island in Boston harbor. 

In the year following the Boston riot, the colonial force 
was defeated in a pitched battle fought in North Carolina, 
in resistance to excessive taxes and unlawful imprison- 
ment. In 1772, a number of Rhode Island people captured and 
burned a British revenue vessel, the Gaspee, which had been 
active in suppressing smuggling along the Rhode Island coast. 

242. The Tea Tax. Parliament, alarmed by the opposition 
of the colonists, now repealed all the Townshend tax measures 
except the one on tea (1770). This tax Parliament imposed 




OLD SOUTH CHURCH 



178 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

merely to show the colonies that it had a right to tax them 
at pleasure. Notwithstanding that tea in America was cheaper 
than in England, the colonists refused to pay the tax, on the 
ground that it was not cheap tea they wanted, but untaxed 
tea. Large cargoes of tea were sent to various American ports. 
The people of New York and Philadelphia refused, however, 
to allow the cargoes to be unshipped ; in Charleston, tea was 
stored away ; in Boston, a number of men disguised as Indians 
boarded the tea-ships, ripped open every chest, and emptied 
the contents into the harbor in the presence of a large party of 
people (1773). This was known as the Boston Tea Party, at 
which over three hundred chests of tea, valued at about ninety 
thousand dollars, were destroyed. 

243. The Five Intolerable Acts. To punish the defiant re- 
sistance to the tea tax Parliament now passed (1774) "The 
Five Intolerable Acts," — The Boston Port Bill, The Massachu- 
setts Bill, The Transportation Bill, The Quartering Act, and 
The Quebec Act. 

The Boston Port Bill closed the port of Boston to all trade 
until the town should pay for the tea that had been destroyed. 
Sympathy and aid were freely given to the people of Boston 
by the other colonial cities. Salem and Marblehead generously 
offered their wharves to Boston merchants, and provisions 
were sent from every direction, even from the far away 
Carolinas. 

The Massachusetts Bill annulled the charter of Massachusetts 
and vested all power in the military governor, General Gage. 
This bill alarmed every colony. What were charters and gov- 
ernments worth if Parliament could alter them at pleasure? 
General Gage was not recognized in any way by the people, 
for, like Andros, he represented the tyranny of an arbitrary 
king. 

The Transportation Bill provided that any officer or soldier 
who committed murder in Massachusetts might be sent to 
England or to some other colony for trial. The object of this 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 179 

bill was to encourage British officers and soldiers to enforce 
the laws more strictly. 

The Quartering Act legalized the lodging of troops upon the 
people. This established a means of enforcing the laws. The 
colonies were required to furnish the soldiers with shelter, fuel, 
drink, bedding, soap, and candles. 

The Quebec Act made all the country north of the Ohio and 
east of the Mississippi a part of Canada, admitted the Cana- 
dian Catholics to the legislative council, and granted them free- 
dom of worship. Parliament passed the Quebec Act to prevent 
the Canadians, who were nearly all Catholics, from joining 
the colonies. Thus the same power which cruelly persecuted 
Catholics in Ireland was induced by political consideration to 
protect them in Canada. The Quebec Bill met with great oppo- 
sition, partly because the colonists thought that the crown had 
no right to give away the land so recently wrested from the 
French, but chiefly because, as they claimed, King George, by 
granting freedom of conscience to the Roman Catholics, be- 
came a traitor, broke his coronation oath, was secretly a 
"Papist," and might ultimately force Popery upon them. 
Hence the common cry was "No King, no Popery!" 

244. The First Continental Congress. The Five Intolerable 
Acts aroused everywhere the deepest indignation. In Boston, 
meetings were held almost daily in Faneuil Hall and the Old 
South Church. Under the leadership of Samuel Adams, each 
town of Massachusetts appointed a committee by means of 
which the towns could consult on all public matters by let- 
ter. A meeting of all the committees would make a "Prov- 
incial Congress." These committees were called Committees 
of Correspondence, and were eventually organized among the 
several colonies. Thus, each colony became acquainted with 
the views of all the others, and the Committees of Correspond- 
ence opened the door, as it were, to the First Continental 
Congress. This congress, the greatest meeting of Americans 
yet held, met (Sept, 5, 1774) in Carpenters' Hall, Philadelphia. 



180 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Fifty-five delegates represented all the colonies except Georgia, 
whose royal governor succeeded in preventing the appointment 
of delegates. The acts of the Congress may be summed up 
as follows : 
(a) it passed resolutions of sympathy and encouragement for 

Massachusetts ; 
(&) a petition was directed to the king, asking the removal of 

grievances, but still claiming loyalty to the mother 

country ; 

(c) addresses were issued to the people of England and 

Canada ; 

(d) a remarkable paper, known as the Declaration of Rights, 

was published. It stated fully the grievances of the 
colonies and their principles of government ; 

(e) an Association was formed for the non-importation and 

non-consumption of British goods, and non-exportation 
of goods to England; 
(/) it fixed the date of meeting of the next Continental Con- 
gress (May 10, 1775). 

245. Plans for Conciliation Fail. King George and his 
''friends," hearing of the Congress, were more determined than 
ever to make America submit. Pitt petitioned for a removal 
of the British troops from Boston, and, with Franklin, pre- 
pared a plan for reconciling England with her colonies. Ed- 
mund Burke, too, spoke eloquently, pleading for the repeal of 
the oppressive acts, but all in vain. Franklin, who was acting 
as the American agent in London, now saw that nothing could 
be done and hastened back to America. 

Preparations for war were now begun. Two distinct parties 
had arisen in America : the Tories, like the Tories in England, 
adhered to the king and were opposed to war; the Whigs 
disapproved of the king's policy and favored war. Patrick 
Henry voiced the sentiment of the Whigs by declaring in a 
stirring speech, which he delivered in St. John's Church, Rich- 
mond, Virginia : "We must fight! We must fight ! Give me 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 181 

liberty or give me death!" Volunteers were raised, oue-third 
of whom were '"Minute-men," that is, men ready to march 
and tight at a minute's notice. Stores of war materials were 
collected. General Gage's efforts to capture some of these 
stores at Lexington and Concord led to the first battle of the 
American Revolution (April 19, 1775). 

246. Causes of the Revolutionary War. The causes of the 
Revolution, or War for Independence, may be briefly summed 
up as follows: the remote cause was England's attitude that 
the colonies existed only for the benefit of the mother country, 
which led to the enactment of the Navigation Acts and other 
laws restricting trade and manufacture. The immediate causes 
were : 

{(i) Writs of Assistance, 
{!)) Stamp Act, 

(c) Mutiny Act, 

(d) Townshend Acts, 
(c) Tea Tax, 

(/) Boston Massacre, 

(g) Five Intolerable Acts. 

247. Comparative Strength of the Warring Parties. The re- 
sistance of the colonies seems almost foolhardy, for in popula- 
tion, wealth, strength, and discipline of navy and army, 
England far surpassed them. The scene of the war was more 
favorable to the British than to the Americans. As there 
were no fortresses, the coast was everywhere open to the land- 
ing of military forces. However, the British generals in the 
early stage of the war were slow, timid, and inefficient; while 
Putnam, Wayne, Greene, and other American generals were 
natural soldiers. Of Washington it may be said that he made 
few serious blunders, was never frightened, and never de- 
spaired. 

Thus the glory of the war was in the courage, patriotism, self- 
sacrifice, and devotion with which the colonies fought against 
a nation many times more powerful in resources and in men. 



182 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

248. The Two Periods of the War. The Revolutionary War 
may be divided into two periods : the first, including the three 
years' events from the battle of Lexington (April 19, 1775), to 
the battle of Saratoga (October 17, 1777), marked the turning 
point of the war and was the dawn of a new era of hope and 
confidence for the Americans. During this period the fighting 
was done in America between the mother country and her 
colonies alone. The second part includes the four years' events 
beginning with the hardships at Valley Forge during the winter 
of 1778, and closing with the crowning victory of Yorktown, 
October 19, 1781. France, Spain, and Holland joined in the 
conflict against England and the war spread to all parts of 
the world. 



REVOLUTION AND CONFEDERATION 



183 




CHAPTER XIII 



FIKST PERIOD OF THE WAR— 1775-1777 



FIRST YEAR— 1775 

249. Battle of Lexington. The first blood of the war was 
shed at Lexington, a small village eleven miles from Boston, 
on the highway to Concord. General Gage determined to 
secure the military stores which the patriots had collected at 
Concord, and to capture Samuel Adams and John Hancock, 
who had escaped to Lexington. Gage had received orders from 

the king to arrest these two 




ICTON I • MEDFORD r -r 

' - ,j.,CMnRLESTOWN 



f"»-* —•' -»■ - 



BOSTON AND VICINITY 



distinguished Massachusetts 
leaders and send them to 
England to be tried for so- 
called treasonable utterances. 
It was rumored that the 
soldiers would be sent to 
seize the stores on the night 
preceding April 19. General 
Joseph Warren hastily des- 
patched Paul Revere from 
Boston to warn Adams and 
Hancock, and to spread the alarm. Revere crossed by boat 
to Charlestown, where he waited until a lantern, hung in the 
belfry of the Old North Church, gave the signal that the 
British were starting by way of the bay and the Charles 
River, through Cambridge. Paul Revere now set out on his 
famous midnight ride, by way of Medford and Lexington, 
everywhere arousing the people. When he reached the house 
in Lexington where Hancock and Adams were asleep, a man 
on guard cried out : ' ' Don 't make so much noise ! " " Noise ! ' ' 

184 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 185 

shouted Revere, "You'll soon have noise enough. The regu- 
lars are coming!" The two fugitives made good their escape, 
while Revere pressed on, with his startling message, to Con- 
cord. The farmers from the country around soon swarmed 
into Concord by the hundreds. 

So through the niglit rode Paul Eevere; 

And so through tlie uiglit went his cry of alarm 

To every Middlesex village and farm — 
A cry of defiance and not of fear — 

A voice in the darkness, a knock at the door, 

And a word that shall echo f orevermore ! 
Through all our history to the last. 

— From Longfellow's "Bide of Paul Ecvcre." 

Eight hundred British soldiers, under Major Pitcairn, en- 
countered about fifty minute-men in a skirmish at Lexington., 
Seven Americans were killed. Pushing on to Concord, a sharp 
battle was fought at Concord Bridge, where a large number 
of minute-men from the country around had hurriedly gath- 
ered. The British destroyed what was left of the stores and 
then fell back to Lexington under American fire. Here they 
were re-enforced, but beating a disorderly retreat to Boston 
they were followed all the way by the minute-men who kept 
firing at them from the shelter of trees, houses, and walls. 
Nearly three hundred of the king's soldiers were left, dead 
or dying, along the road, while the dead and wounded of the 
patriots numbered about ninety. 

By the rude bridge that arched the flood. 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 

And fired the shot heard round the world, 

— Emerson 's ' ' Concord Hymn. ' ' 

250. Second Continental Congress. The Second Continental 
Congress began its session on May 10, 1775, in the Old State 
House (now Independence Hall), Philadelphia. At its ses- 
sions : 



186 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



(a) it voted to raise an army of twenty thousand, the expense 

of which was to be paid by tlie united colonies ; 
(6) George Washington was appointed, by unanimous vote, 

commander-in-chief of the Continental Army; 
(c) a petition to the king was prepared. 

To this petition the king responded with the declaration that 
the Americans were rebels and traitors, and must be forced to 

submit to the rule of 
the British crown. 
He even went so far 
as to hire soldiers 
from foreign powers 
to help him subju- 
gate his rebel colo- 
nies. This Congress 
continued with occa- 
sional adjournment 
until March 1, 1781, 
when it was succeed- 
ed by the Congress 
of the Confederation. 
251. Capture of 
Ticonderog-a and 
Crown Point. On the 
day that the Second 
Continental Congress 
convened for the first 
time a company of 
* ' Green Mountain 
Boys ' ' from Vermont, under Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold, 
surprised the British garrison at Fort Ticonderoga. Entering 
the fort in the night, Ethan Allen found the commander in 
bed. He ordered him to surrender. "In whose name?" de- 
manded the bewildered officer, who had just been aroused 
from sleep. "In the name of the Great Jehovah and the Con- 




GEOKGE WASHINGTON 



From the painting by Gilbert Stuart 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 187 

tinental Congress!" replied Allen. No resistance was at- 
tempted. (Allen was an infidel, and as such his writings, 
especially his "Oracles of Reason," are considered highly 
objectionable from a Catholic standpoint. Allen's daughter, 
however, became a Catholic and joined the community of 
hospital nuns at Montreal, where she lived a saintly life.) 

Crown Point was taken a few days later. By the capture 
of Ticonderoga and Crown Point the patriots gained possession 
of valuable and sorely needed military stores. They further- 
more obtained control of Lakes Champlain and George, the 
coveted water route between New York and Canada. 

252. Battle of Bunker Hill. General Gage, having received 
re-enforcements from England, under command of Generals 
Howe, Clinton, and Burgoyne, now commanded at Boston a 
force of about eight thousand men. In his plans to fortify the 
heights, now known as Breed's Hill and Bunker Hill, Gage was 
forestalled by the Americans. The latter, led by Colonel 
Samuel Prescott, who was aided by Generals Warren and Put- 
nam, quietly fortified the hill during the night. The next morn- 
ing General Gage was both surprised and chagrined to find that 
he had been out-generaled. Forces under General Howe pre- 
pared at once to storm the American works. In two desperate 
attacks the British were driven back with a loss of one-third 
of their number, and only the exhaustion of American ammu- 
nition made their third assault a success (June). The British 
lost more than one thousand men, the Americans less than four 
hundred and fifty. Among the slain on the American side was 
the noble patriot, General Joseph Warren, commander-in-chief 
of the Massachusetts militia. The death of General Warren was 
the most serious loss in a single life during the war. The 
English lost Major Pitcairn. 

The Bunker Hill conflict inspired the Americans with cour- 
age and hope. They learned that their troops were equal to 
those of the British army. The English learned the same les- 
son. They were astonished at the fighting qualities which the 



188 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



colonists displayed at the Lexington encounter and at the battle 
of Bunker Hill. 

253. Washington in Charge of the Army. On July 2, 1775, 
Washington took command of tlie A)nerican army under an 
elm tree (which is still standing, 1914), near Harvard Univer- 
sity, Cambridge. The army whicli he found encamped before 
Boston was poorly clad, ill-equipped, and disorderly. IIow un- 




CRAIGIE HOUSE, THE HOME OF LONGFELLOW 
(Washington's Headquarters, 1775) 

disciplined the American recruits were may be seen from the 
following incident : a captain asked a private to get a pail of 
water for the men. He received as answer, "I shan't. It's 
your turn now, captain; I got it last night." Washington 
spent the fall and winter in organizing the army. In this 
difficult task he was aided by Generals (xreene (next to Wash- 
ington the ablest commander in the war), Sullivan, Putnam, 
Gates, and others. By extraordinary^ exertions the army was 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 189 

brought under discipline. Cannon were transported from 
Ticonderoga ; the British stores in the Bermudas were seized ; 
and powder was collected from all the country towns in the 
region. 

254. Invasion of Canada — Congress Fails to Win the Cana- 
dians. In order to save Boston and New York City, measures 
had to be taken to prevent the British from invading New 
York from Canada by way of Lake Champlain, whereupon 
General Montgomery captured Montreal and hastened to join 
Benedict Arnold and Daniel Morgan. The troops of the latter 
had reached Quebec by way of Maine, footsore and hungry, 
after a long march through the forests. They besieged 
Quebec, the Gibraltar of America, for three weeks and then 
attacked the city, but failed to capture it. Montgomery was 
killed and Arnold wounded. In the spring the army retreated 
from Canada to Crown Point on Lake Champlain. 

It was still hoped that Canada might be won over to the 
American cause. Consequently, while Arnold was in camp 
before Quebec, Congress sent Benjamin Franklin, Samuel 
Chase, Charles Carroll of Carrollton, and Father John Carroll 
to Montreal to propose cooperation, or, at least, to secure 
Canadian neutrality. They failed, however, in their mis- 
sion. 

The anti-Catholic attacks on the Quebec Act and the religious 
intolerance of the colonies in the past, had led the Canadians 
to believe that they might expect fairer treatment from 
England than from the Americans. 

255. The Abnaki Indians Aid the Colonies. Washington 
asked aid of the Catholic Abnaki Indians of Maine, and depu- 
ties of all the tribes met and agreed to aid the colonies. Orono, 
the noble chief of the Penobscots, became an officer in the 
American army, and his Catholic kinsmen fought by his side. 
All these tribes were sincerely Catholic, and Puritan Massa- 
chusetts regretted that it could not give these Christian Indians 
a missionary of the same faith. Strange revolution ! 



190 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR— 1770 

256. The British Leave Boston — Attack on Charleston Fails. 

Washington, while disciplining his army, drew his lines closely 
around Boston. One night he seized and fortified Dorchester 
Heights. The next morning Howe, who had superseded Gage, 
saw that not only his army, but also his fleet, was at the mercy 
of Washington. He must choose either to fight or to get to 
sea. Remembering the lesson of Bunker Hill, he, with all his 
troops and some hundred Tories, sailed for Halifax, Nova 
Scotia (March). Washington, by this bloodless victory, freed 
New England from the enemy, secured a large quantity of 
ammunition and heavy guns, and raised the hope of the nation. 

A British detachment, under Clinton, had left Boston some 
time previous to its evacuation, with the secret purpose of mak- 
ing an attack on New York. Washington forestalled the attack 
by sending General Charles Lee to raise volunteers in Connec- 
ticut to protect the city. Clinton, after failing in this plan, 
sailed south to attack Charleston. Here he was gallantly re- 
pulsed at Sullivan's Island in Charleston harbor, by the united 
forces of Colonel Moultrie and General Lee, the latter having 
followed Clinton by land (June). The fort from which Clin- 
ton's attack was repulsed bore ever after the name of its brave 
defender. Colonel Moultrie. Li the heat of the battle, the flag 
of the fort was shot away, and fell outside. Sergeant Jasper, 
seeing this, cried: "Don't let us fight without a flag!" and, 
instantly leaping after it, seized it, fastened it to a staff, 
and in sight of the whole British fleet, amid a volley of 
bullets, fixed it once more firmly in its place. 

Clinton finally sailed to join Howe. This was the first 
victory over the boasted "Mistress of the Seas" and caused 
universal rejoicing in America. 

257. Steps toward Independence. Heretofore the majority 
of the colonists had hoped for a peaceful settlement with the 
mother country without a formal separation ; but a year of 



FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAR 



191 



war and the fact that England hired soldiers (Hessians) to 
fight against her own subjects, led the Americans to debate 
earnestly the question of independence. A powerful pamphlet, 
written by Thomas Paine and read by thousands of people, 
boldly proclaimed that the time had come for a final separa- 
tion from England, and that arms must decide the contest. 
This pamphlet, called "Common Sense," contained, together 
with much truth, some errors, and paved the way, as it were, 
for Paine 's other pamphlets, such as "The Crisis." 




i\I»i<l'L\I)E\tE n\TL. 1776 



258. The Declaration of Independence. At the Congress con- 
vened on June 7, 1776, in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, 
liiehard Henry Lee of Virginia offered the famous resolution : 
"that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free 
and independent states. ' ' The resolution was seconded by John 
Adams of Massachusetts. On July 2 the Independence reso- 
lution was passed and a committee, consisting of Thomas Jeffer- 
son (chairman), John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Roger Sher- 
man, and Robert R. Livingston, was appointed to draw up the 
Declaration of Independence. This Declaration was written 



192 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

by Jefferson, and adopted July 4, 1776. On this date the col- 
onies became free and independent states, and the Fourth of 
July was henceforth to be celebrated as the birthday of the 
nation. The Declaration closed with these words: ''For 
the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on 
the protection of Divine Providence, we nuitually pledge 
to each other our lives, our fortunes and our sacred 
honor." It was signed by fifty-six delegates from the various 
states. The signing of the Declaration of Independence was 
regarded in England as treason, the punishment of which 
crime was death. John Hancock, as president of the Congress, 
was the first to attach his signature. He wrote his name in 
a bold, clear hand, saying: "There, John Bull can read that 
without spectacles, and may now double his reward of five 
hundred pounds for my head." Then, turning, he added: 
"Gentlemen, we must all hang together." "Yes," replied 
Franklin, "or we shall all hang separately." It is said that 
when Charles Carroll affixed his signature, some one, alluding 
to his great wealth, said: "There go millions;" while another 
remarked: "No, there are several Charles Carrolls," where- 
upon the eminent signer added to his name the words: "Of 
Carrollton, " saying as he did so, "'they cannot mistake me 
now." Stephen Hopkins was affiicted with palsy; when he was 
writing his name a by-stander remarked, "Your hand trem- 
bles." The patriot answered, "True, but my heart does not." 
The adoption of the Declaration of Independence caused 
great rejoicing throughout the country, except in Tory sections. 
The thirteen British colonies had ceased to exist. In their place 
stood a new nation — The United States of America. The old 
Liberty Bell rang out the glad tidings to all the land, while 
every steeple re-echoed it. In New York the excited patriots 
pulled down the leaden statue of George III on horseback and 
molded it into bullets for the use of the army. The people 
realized that they must make good this declaration of independ- 
ence by a desperate struggle. 




BENJAMIN FRANKLIN THOMAS JKFFERSON 

ROBERT MORRIS JOHN ADAMS 

Revolutionary Leaders 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 193 

How they shouted! What rejoicings! 

How the old bell shook the air, 
Till the clang of freedom ruffled 

The cahn, gliding Delaware! 

How the bonfires and the torches 

Illumed the night's repose, 
And from the flames, like fabled phoenix, 

Our glorious Liberty arose! 

—W. B. Wallace's "Liberty Bell." 

259. The Opposing Armies at New York. General Howe 
soon sailed from Halifax to New York and established his 
headquarters on Staten Island. Thither came his brother, 
Admiral Howe, with re-enforcements from England, and Clin- 
ton from his defeat at Fort Moultrie. Howe had now under 
his command about thirty thousand well-armed soldiers. 
Washington, divining the plans of the enemy, gathered all his 
available forces, about seventeen thousand men, at New York 
to protect the city. Fort Lee and Fort Washington were built 
on opposite sides of the Hudson. Brooklyn Heights on 
Long Island commanded New York City, and it was imme- 
diately fortified and placed under the command of General 
Putnam. 

Putnam was one of the great number of recruits who had 
gathered at Cambridge after the battle of Lexington. He 
was plowing on his farm in Connecticut when the news of the 
battle reached him. Leaving his plow in the furrow and his 
oxen free, he sprang to his horse and never stopped until he 
reached the camp at Cambridge. Putnam was noted for reck- 
less bravery, which well qualified him for bold and startling 
movements. 

Great Britain, after her failure in New England, now 
planned to gain control of the Middle States. Her objects 
in this move were to separate the North from the South, and 
to cut off relations between the two great ringleaders — Massa- 
chusetts and Virginia. This could be best done by getting 



194 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



possession of New York harbor, and of the water route to 
Canada by way of the Hudson River and Lake Champlain. 



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260. The Battle of Long Island. General Howe saw that, 
by securing Brooklyn Heights, he could, from this point, drive 
"Washington out of New York, just as Washington had driven 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 195 

him out of Boston. So he attacked a detachment of Putnam's 
army under Sullivan and defeated it with heavy loss (August). 
He did not, however, follow up his victory, and the wary Wash- 
ington, under cover of a dense fog and burning camp fires, 
removed his entire army across East River to New York. 
Again, as at Bunker Hill and Dorchester Heights, the slow- 
witted Howe was out-generaled by Washington. 

261. Washington's Masterly Retreat. Howe followed Wash- 
ington to New York, and the latter, unable to hold the city 
against the superior forces of the enemy,, retreated northward 
along the east side of the Hudson to Peekskill, encovintering 
Howe's skirmishing parties at Harlem and White Plains (Octo- 
ber). 

Captain Nathan Hale, only twenty-one years of age, a for- 
mer student of Yale College, a school teacher by profession, 
was sent by Washington to gain some information respecting 
the British in the city. Betrayed by an American Tory, he 
was captured by the enemy and executed, without trial, as a 
spy. His last words, "I only regret that I have but one life 
to give for my country," proved the undaunted patriotism of 
this brave hero. 

Howe captured Forts Lee and Washington. Aroused by the 
losses he had suffered (New York, and Forts Washington and 
Lee), Washington left General Charles Lee to hold Peekskill. 
while he himself hurried across the Hudson to New Jersey to 
stand between the British and Philadelphia. The British, 
under Lord Cornwallis, also crossed the Hudson. Washing- 
ton now ordered Lee, who was still on the east side of the 
river, to join him ; but this treacherous commander refused, 
and Washington's only policy was that of retreat. Greatly 
outnumbered by the British, he tied rapidly before them 
through Newark, New Brunswick, Princeton, and Trenton, 
whence he crossed the Delaware into Pennsylvania. Since 
Washington had seized all the boats in reach, Cornwallis could 
not follow across the stream, so he returned to New York to 



196 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



share in the Christmas festivities, declaring that he would wait 
till the river should be frozen over to "bag the old fox," as he 
styled Washington. General Charles Lee now started to fol- 
low his chief leisurely into New Jersey. He was soon captured 

by the British ; his troops, 
however, succeeded in join- 
ing Washington. Lee was a 
traitor. Jealous of AVash- 
ington, and disappointed in 
his hope of securing the lat- 
ter 's position, he wished to 
see him fail. 

The American situation, 
after the succession of disas- 
ters attending Washington's 
remarkably skillful retreat, 
was gloomy, and discourage- 
ment settled on the country. 
Washington was constantly 
losing men by sickness and 
desertion, until he had not 
more than five thousand un- 
der his command, while the 
British army was being re- 
enforced by the deserters 
from Washington's army, as 
well as by numerous Tories. 
The British generals began 
to think that the war was 
near its close. Cornwallis 
was even packing up to re- 
turn home. He thought that the Delaware would soon be 
bridged by ice and that he could then cross and capture 
Philadelphia, the rebel capital. After this his services would 
no longer be needed in America. 




HESSIAN SOLDIER 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 197 

262. The Battle of Trenton. To raise the spirits of his 
troops and to remove the despair that seemed to be settling 
upon the country, Washington determined to strike a bokl 
and ahnost reckh^ss blow. On Christmas night, in a blinding 
storm of snow and sleet, and amid drifting ice, he crossed 
the Delaware at Trenton and made a sudden attack upon the 
British. He captured one thousand Hessian soldiers, and es- 
caped to Pennsylvania with a loss of only four men. Colonel 
Rahl, the Hessian commander, was mortally wounded. This 
brilliant feat, the last of the events of 1776, kindled anew the 
fires of patriotism, and forced Cornwallis to decide to remain 
a little longer in America. 

THIRD YEAR OP THE WAR— 1777 

263. The Battle of Princeton — Sore Straits. Immediately 
after the battle of Trenton, the second day of the new year, 
Washington recrossed the Delaware and faced Cornwallis at 
Trenton. The latter remarked that now he had the "old fox" 
penned and would "bag" him in the morning. But, while a 
few of his men were making a show of throwing up earth- 
Avorks, Washington, under cover of night, marched around 
Cornwallis, defeated his rear guard at Princeton, and captured 
several hundred prisoners, together with a much-needed sup- 
ply of ammunition. He then withdrew in safety to the Heights 
of Morristown, where he went into winter quarters. Corn- 
wallis followed to Princeton, but finding that he was too late, 
returned to New York for the winter. 

Washington's great military skill and the attendant victories 
of Trenton and Princeton sent a thrill of joy throughout the 
colonies from Maine to Georgia, and from the mountains to 
the sea. But Washington was in sore straits with his army. 
The term of service of many soldiers was about to expire, and 
these were eager to get back to their homes. Worst of all, they 
had received no pay to send to their families. Washington 
appealed to his friend, Robert Morris, a wealthy banker of 



198 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Philadelphia, for help. Morris promptly raised a large sum of 
money and the army was saved for the great campaigns of the 
year. On several other occasions during the vs^ar Morris gave 
financial support to the army. Final victory would have been 
impossible without the funds which he supplied, and, next to 
Washington, we owe American independence to the generosity 
and financial skill of Robert Morris. He eventually became 
poor and was cast into a debtor's prison, where he languished 
four 3^ears. He died (1806) a few years after his release. 

264. Noble Foreigners Lend Their Aid. Congress had made 
several efforts to induce the King of France to aid the patriot 
cause, but as an open treaty with America meant a war with 
England, France, for the time being, only secretly gave some 
assistance in money, arms, and supplies. Washington's war 
tactics and the bravery and patriotism of the American army 
at large were rapidly gaining recognition abroad. As a conse- 
quence, the distinguished foreigners, Marquis Lafayette and 
Baron De Kalb from France, Baron Steuben, a German soldier, 
and the bra\e Poles, Pulaski and Kosciusko, offered their serv- 
ices to Congress. These five officers merited the lasting grati- 
tude of the American people. 

CAMPAIGN IN PENNSYLVANIA 

265. The Battles of Brandywine and Germantown. After 
spending the winter at New York, Howe tried to force a battle 
upon Washington. Failing in his repeated attempts, he sud- 
denly sailed southward (June) with eighteen thousand men. 
Washington, too, hurried south and the armies met in battle 
at Brandywine Creek. The Americans were defeated by the 
superior number of the British troops, but Washington with- 
drew his army in good order to Philadelphia. Congress went 
to Lancaster and later to York in Pennsylvania (September). 
Washington was unable to defend the city and Howe entered 
it in triumph. The British then went into winter quarters there 
and also at Germantown. The noble foreigners, Lafayette, 



FIRST PERIOD OF THE WAR 199 

De Kalb, and Pulaski, displayed great valor during the cam- 
paign in Pennsylvania. 

Washington, in another bold surprise like the one at Tren- 
ton, fell upon the British at Germantown (October), but 
failed to capture them because of a dense fog which caused 
such confusion in his own ranks that one division attacked the 
other. The Americans now made their winter camp at Valley 











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PHILADELPHIA AND VICINITY 



Forge, twenty miles from Philadelphia. Howe M^as two months 
on the way from New York to Pennsylvania. These were two 
precious months for Washington, whose masterly strategy in 
detaining General Howe in the vicinity of Philadelphia, pre- 
vented him from giving sorely needed aid to Burgoyne. 

Washington had by this time gained the title of "'the 
American Fabius." King Frederick II of Prussia, called "the 



200 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Great" was the most celebrated general of his age. He well 
knew what it was to fight under tremendous difficulties, for at 
one time all Europe was combined against him. Speaking of 
Washington's movements in New Jersey (1776), he said they 
were the most brilliant in the annals of war. Of the American 
soldiers he said: "I like those brave fellows and cannot help 
hoping for their success." 

CAMPAIGN IN NEW YORK— BURGOYNE'S INVASION 

266. Plan of the Campaign. We have now seen the result 
of one of the campaigns planned by the British for this year; 
though not entirely favorable, it still proved instrumental in 
bringing about the success of the second campaign — the one 
in New York, which was to secure for the British the control 
of the entire Hudson. The British plan for this campaign 
was threefold : 

(a) Burgoyne, with a strong army, was to come down from 

Canada by way of Lake Champlain and the Hudson ; 
(6) a small body of Canadians and Indians, under Colonel 
St. Leger, was to ascend the St Lawrence and Lake 
Ontario to Oswego, and capture Fort Stanwix, near 
where Rome is now situated, and finally join Burgoyne 
on the Hudson ; 
(c) General Howe, with the main army, was to march up the 
Hudson, capture the American forts, and join Burgoyne 
and St. Leger at Albany. 
But Howe, as we have seen, was delayed by Washington in 
the south and hence failed to carry out his part of the plan. 
He did not get his orders from England until long after Bur- 
goyne 's surrender. They had been lying forgotten in the desk 
of the minister of war, awaiting his signature. 

267. Capture of Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward. 
General Burgoyne ascended the Sorel River and Lake Cham- 
plain with an army of about eight thousand men, including 
Englishmen, Canadians, Germans, American Tories, and In- 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 201 

dians. On his way, lie captured, one after the other. Forts 
Crown Point, Ticonderoga, and Edward (July). Though Bur- 
goyne made a brilliant beginning, he soon met with great diffi- 
culties. The country was swampy and heavily wooded and 
Schuyler, who had been defeated at Ticonderoga and Crown 
Point because he could not hold the forts against the superior 
number of Burgoyne's troops, now greatly retarded the prog- 
ress of the latter by felling trees across the roads and destroy- 
ing bridges. Burgoyne, moreover, had no supplies with him. 
They had to be sent to him from Canada, and the farther he 
advanced, the more difficult it was to procure supplies for his 
army. 

268. The Battle of Oriskany. In the meantime, the British 
and Indian forces under St. Leger, and the Mohawk chief, 
Brandt, had succeeded in getting as far as Oriskany, near Fort 
Stanwix, where they met a small American army under General 
Herkimer. Here was fought one of the bloodiest battles of 
the war. The result was indecisive. Later, by a stratagem 
of Arnold, who had come with re-enforcements, the British were 
driven precipitately from the fort. A half-witted Tory boy, 
who had been taken prisoner by the Americans, was promised 
his freedom if he would go to St. Leger 's camp and spread the 
report that a large American army was advancing. With a 
dozen bullet holes in his clothes, he rushed into the camp of 
the besiegers and described his narrow escape from the enemy 
and by mysteriously pointing to the leaves on the trees he 
intimated that the enemy was in immense force. This so 
terrified the Indians and British that they fled, leaving their 
equipment and guns behind them. So this part of the British 
plan met with complete failure. 

After the victory at Oriskany, a captured British flag was 
run up at Fort Stanwix, now re-named Fort Schuyler, and 
above it was hoisted the first American flag. This was the stars 
and stripes, which Congress had adopted as the national em- 
blem, on June 14, the day now celebrated as "Flag Day." This 



202 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



first flag had been hastily patched together from a white shirt, 
a blue jacket, and a red flannel petticoat. 

269. The Battle of Bennington. Burgoyne, on learning that 
the Americans had stored some provisions and military sup- 




continental ARTILLERY 

plies at the village of Bennington, Vermont, dispatched a force 
to capture them. General Stark, with the New Hampshire 
militia, met the British at Bennington and defeated them 
(August). To animate his soldiers, General Stark, before the 
opening of the battle, appealing to their sympathies, exclaimed : 



FIRST PERIOD OP THE WAR 203 

"My fellow soldiers, we must conquer today or Molly Stark 
is a widow." 

270. The Battle of Bemis Heights. Burgoyne now found 
hiinself hemmed in by the rapidly increasing American forces 
under General Gates, who had superseded Schuyler. He crossed 
the Hudson and struggled slowly onward down the west bank 
of the river toward the Mohawk, hoping against hope to hear 
from either Howe or St. Leger. He met the Americans under 
Arnold and Morgan in the desperate battle at Bemis Heights 
(September). The battle was undecided, but was followed by 
the utter defeat of the British at Stillwater, a little to the 
south of Bemis Heights. 

Gates took no direct part in these battles and was not 
actually present on the field of either. He was a vain, weak 
general of little ability, and the action of Congress in dis- 
placing General Schuyler, against the wishes of Washington, 
has been generally considered unwise. 

271. Burgoyne 's Surrender at Saratoga — Results. The Amer- 
ican forces, step by step, drove Burgoyne back to Saratoga, 
where, cut oft' from all supplies and almost completely sur- 
rounded by the American army, he surrendered to General 
Gates on October 17, after a desperate battle. His army of 
six thousand men laid down their arms. 

Though the surrender was made to General Gates, the credit 
of the momentous victory belonged, first, to General Schuyler, 
because of his previous plans wisely laid for managing the 
campaign, and next, to the gallant leadership of Arnold and 
Morgan. Though deprived of his command by Gates, Arnold, 
while watching the progress of the battle, could not restrain 
himself. Hastily mounting his steed, he dashed to the head of 
his troops, and led them to victory. The terms of the surrender 
were embodied in an agreement known as the Saratoga Con- 
vention. According to this, the British troops were to march 
to Boston and there embark on transports furnished by the 
British government, on condition that they should not again 



204 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

serve in North America until exchanged. Congress repudiated 
this agreement and held the troops as prisoners. 

The surrender of General Burgoyne proved to be the turning 
point of the war : 

(a) it completely broke up the English plans for the war; 
(h) it influenced France to recognize American independence 
and thus secured for the colonies the aid of England's 
old and powerful enemy; 
(c) it inspired the American patriots with hope and confidence. 

272. The Articles of Confederation. At the same time that 
the Declaration of Independence was framed, a committee had 
been appointed to draw up a plan of government for the new 
nation. This plan, called the Articles of Confederation, was 
adopted by Congress (1777) and by the State Assemblies 
(1776-1781). By these Articles, or laws, the colonies were 
governed from 1781 to the adoption of the Constitution (1789). 



CHAPTER XIV 



SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAE— 1777-1781 
FOURTH YEAR OF THE WAR — 1778 




-' ' '' "'■""! I'llii ■'"■'■ fi' 



273. The Hardships at Valley Forge. The second period of 
the war is distinguished chiefly for two facts; namely, France 
entered into an alliance with the Americans ; and the war was 
carried on chiefly in the south and in a more aggressive manner. 

While Howe and his soldiers were having an enjoyahle time 
in their winter quarters at Philadelphia, Washington and his 
army at Valley Forge were bravely struggling through the 
gloomiest season of the war. Owing to mismanagement by 
Congress and the Commissary Department, the soldiers were 
poorly fed, clad, and housed, although there were provisions 
lying unused at various places. But amidst all the untold suf- 
ferings of that terrible winter Washington's sublime covirage 
inspired those about him. He finally succeeded in enlisting 
many regiments to serve during the entire war. These were 
called Continentals, and Baron Steuben taught these crude 
warriors the fine maneuvers of the soldiers of the Prussian 
army and the skillful use of the bayonet. Thus, by spring, 

205 



206 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

these disorderly recruits were transformed into a well-disci- 
plined army. 

A touching story is told of "Washington at Valley Forge. One 
day while Mr. Potts, Washington's host, passed through the 
woods, his attention was attracted by the sound of an earnest 
voice. Upon approaching, Potts discovered the sorrow-bur- 
dened commander-in-chief on his knees, praying with tearful 
eyes. Potts related the incident to his wife, adding, "Under 
such a commander, the Americans will surely secure their 
independence. ' ' 

274. The Conway Cabal. To add to Washington's trials at 
A^alley Forge, a conspiracy was formed against him. His 
"Fabian policy" did not fail to call forth the criticism of jeal- 
ous and ambitious characters, who, envious of his fame, endeav- 
ored to have' him removed from the army and to have Gates 
supersede him. The movement, known as the Conway Cabal, 
from one of its leaders, not only proved a failure in its purpose, 
but served rather to raise Washington higher than ever in the 
esteem of his countrymen and to place him stronger than ever 
in his position. Later Conway wrote Washington a letter 
expressing sorrow for what he had done. 

275. Foreign Aid. Silas Deane, sent to Paris (1776) to urge 
an alliance with France, was joined by Benjamin Franklin and 
Arthur Lee after the Declaration of Independence. Not until 
hearing of the brilliant victory at Saratoga did King Louis XVI 
yield. France now recognized the United States as an inde- 
pendent power, and, entering into an alliance, sent troops and 
a fleet to aid the Americans, in return for their pledge not to 
make peace with England until she had acknowledged their 
independence (February). This caused war between France 
and England. France was persuaded to form an alliance with 
America largely through the able efforts of Benjamin Franklin. 
Though already seventy years of age, his wonderful intellect, 
as also his reputation as a scientist, and his simple, straight- 
forward manner charmed the French people. In admiration 



SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 



207 



they spoke of him as "the man who can snatch lightning from 
tlie clouds and scepters from kings' hands." 

The Americans saw in the French alliance a promise of final 
success. It sent a thrill of joy throughout the land and infused 
new hope and courage in Washington in his camp at Valley 
P^orge. George III now offered to grant the Americans almost 
everything they had demanded except independence (June), 
but nothing short of this would now be accepted. The British 
even had recourse to bribery, which, however, was scornfully 
rejected. General Joseph Reed of Philadelphia Was offered a 
large sum of money and high honors if he would try to influence 

Congress toward reconciliation. 
To this the noble patriot in- 
dignantly replied, "I am not 
worth purchasing ; bvit such as 
I am, the king of England is 
not rich enough to buy me." 
John Jay was sent to Spain 
to solicit help and 
that country loaned 
him money. 

276. Philadelphia 
Evacuated. When 
General Henry Clin- 
ton, who had suc- 
ceeded Howe, 
learned that a 
French fleet was 
making for the 
American coast, he 
evacuated Philadelphia (June 18), and with his troops and 
some three thousand Tories, set out for New York. Clinton, 
fearing he might be closed up in Philadelphia as Howe had 
been in Boston, wished to re-enforce his army in New York 
against a possible American attack. General Howe, who never 




208 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

believed in the British war policy, resigned and, like Burgoyne, 
returned to England. 

277. The Battle of Monmouth. Washington, emerging from 
Valley Forge, followed Clinton across New Jersey and at- 
tacked him at Monmouth Court House (June 28). Lee had 
been directed to attack Clinton's flank while Washington him- 
self was to make an attack the moment the enemy were thrown 
into confusion. Instead, however, the treacherous Lee ordered 
a retreat. Washington, who had been informed of the fact by 
Lafayette, rode up at this perilous moment and, after severely 
rebuking Lee, promptly rallied the men, who at once fell into 
order, wheeled about, and rushed forward for a new attack. 
Washington, however, failed to win a decisive victory. During 
the night the British withdrew and Clinton took up his position 
in New York, while Washington occupied his old camp at 
White Plains. 

278. Movements of the First French Fleet. Ten days after 
Clinton had evacuated Philadelphia, a French fleet, under 
D'Estaing, a kinsman of Lafayette, anchored (July) in Dela- 
ware Bay. Finding Philadelphia evacuated, he followed Clin- 
ton to New York. Here D'Estaing could not venture a battle 
because two of his ships were too large to cross the bar at Sandy 
Hook. So he proceeded to Newport, where, in conjunction with 
a land force under General Sullivan, he prepared to capture 
the only city, besides New York, still held by the British. But 
Admiral Howe appeared on the scene and the two opposing 
fleets prepared for battle. They were ready for action when a 
sudden storm scattered them and forced Admiral D'Estaing 
to put into Boston Harbor for repairs. Sullivan, thus left 
without help, was forced to retreat. D'Estaing soon moved off 
to the West Indies to defend the French possessions there. 

279. Beginnings of Kentucky and Tennessee. Before the 
war, the British had dominion over all the territory north of 
the Ohio, between the Mississippi and the Alleghanies. This 
region was, however, claimed by various colonies, by authority 



SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 209 

of their original charters. A North Carolina hunter, Daniel 
Boone, with his family, began a settlement in Kentucky (1775) 
and called it Boonesboro. Other settlers followed him from 
Virginia and North Carolina. About the same time that Boone 
went to Kentucky, pioneers from North Carolina settled Ten- 
nessee, first on the Watauga River and then at the present site 
of Nashville. James Robertson and John Sevier were two of 
the famous leaders under whose command the pioneers com- 
pletely defeated the Cherokee Indians who constantly men- 
aced the safety of the settlements. 

280. Indian Massacres. In the summer of this year, the 
combined forces of Tories and Iroquois, accompanied by the 
Tory general, Butler, advanced from Niagara, fell upon the 
defenseless inhabitants of Wyoming Valley, Pennsylvania, and 
here perpetrated one of the most horrible massacres in history. 
Cherry Valley, a village in New York, met a similar fate from 
the Tories under John Johnson (son of Sir William Johnson) 
and the Iroquois, led by the celebrated chief Joseph Brandt. 
This chief had been well educated and had even visited Eng- 
land, where, highly honored, he sat at table with members of 
Parliament. 

The news of these awful outrages sent a thrill of horror 
throughout the civilized world, and a part of Washington's 
army, under General Sullivan, hastened (1779) to punish the 
Indians. Sullivan met and overthrew the combined forces of 
Johnson, Butler, and Brandt with great slaughter, at the pres- 
ent site of Elmira (July). He completely laid waste the Indian 
villages, and destroyed their harvests. In the winter follow- 
ing, which was unusually severe, intense cold together with 
starvation and disease, finished the work of destruction, and 
the power of the Six Nations was broken forever. 

281. Clark's Conquest of the Northwest. Colonel Hamilton, 
the British commander at Detroit, planned to stir up the Indians 
of the West to attack the whole frontier and wipe out the young 
western settlements. Hearing of this, Patrick Henry, gov- 



210 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ernor of Virginia, sent (June) a force under Major George 
Rogers Clark to seize the English posts between the Ohio and 
Mississippi rivers. The French settlers at Kaskaskia and 
Cahokia, influenced by Father Gibault, readily submitted. 
Clark next made friends with the Spanish at St. Louis, on the 
opposite bank, and then advanced on Vincennes, the most im- 
portant British post of the region. Through the friendly serv- 
ices of Father Gibault, Vincennes, too, yielded peaceably. The 
British under Hamilton retook the fort, but Clark soon recap- 
tured it (May, 1779). Thus, one of the most important expedi- 
tions of the war came to a favorable issue and the Americans 
secured control of the whole Northwest, from Pennsylvania to 
the Mississippi, and from the Great Lakes to the Ohio. This 
Northwest Territory, as it was called, had been reserved by 
Great Britain, as "Crown lands" exclusively for the Indians, 
and the American colonists had been forbidden to occupy it. 
Next to Clark, the United States is indebted to the kindly 
services of Father Gibault for the accession of the Northwest 
Territory. This good Father was for a long time the only priest 
in Illinois and Indiana. At the time of Clark's conquest of the 
Northwest, he not only induced the French as well as the 
Catholic Indians to submit without protest, but also encouraged 
them to espouse the American cause. He administered to them, 
in his own church, the oath of allegiance to Congress and 
blessed the arms of the volunteers. 

282. The King's New Plan for the War. After three years 
of war, the English had failed to subdue either New England 
(1775-1776) or the Middle Colonies (1776-1777), and were no 
better off than when the war began. They now planned a new 
way of conquering America. The royal army, starting at the 
South, was to move northward and cut off one state after an- 
other. 

283. British Successes in Georgia. Under General Clinton's 
direction, Savannah was captured (December). General 
Prevost, leading his forces northward from Florida, conquered 



SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 



211 



the rest of Georgia. The royal governor was reinstated and 
Great Britain could once more boast of a royal province among 



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212 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

the colonies. Prevost next marched against Charleston, but 
was driven back by Benjamin Lincoln, who commanded the 
American forces in the South. Thus the close of the year 
(1778) left the British in possession of Georgia. 

FIFTH YEAR OF THE WAR— 1779 

284. The Capture of Stony Point and Paulus Hook. Since 
the battle of Monmouth (June, 1778), Washington had done 
little but watch Clinton. The latter held the city of New York, 
whence he sent out expeditions which robbed and burned 
towns in New England, New Jersey, and Virginia. In the 
trail of blood and cruelty which everywhere they left their 
warfare resembled that of savages rather than that of civilized 
men. Washington had already strongly fortified West Point 
on the Hudson, but to make the upper river more secure he 
built forts on the opposite banks, at Stony and Verplanck 
Points. The British, however, captured Stony Point before its 
completion. Washington, in consequence, sent General Wayne 
to recapture it. 

General Wayne, surnamed "Mad Anthony, " because of his 
brilliant feats at arms, became the popular hero of the Revolu- 
tion. He had accidentally obtained the countersign, "The fort 
is ours," from a negro acquainted at the fort. With it he de- 
ceived the unsuspicious sentinel, who, while chatting with the 
negro, was seized and made powerless. Meanwhile, Wayne 
with a force of picked men trained by Steuben entered the 
fort (July). 

Shortly after, Henry Lee, called "Lighthorse Harry," gal- 
lantly led a small force of chosen men and captured the British 
garrison on Paulus Hook, a narrow neck of land extending 
into the Hudson from New Jersey. 

The Lees of Virginia played a remarkable part in American 
history. Richard Henry introduced the resolution for the 
Declaration of Independence ; Francis Lightfoot was one of 
the signers of the Declaration of Independence ; Arthur was an 



SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 213 

agent of the colonies, successively, in London, Madrid, Paris, 
and Berlin; "Lighthorse Harry" was a noted leader of the 
partisan bands and father of Robert E. Lee, the commander-in- 
chief of the Confederate Army in the Civil War. The General 
Charles Lee who was court-martialed and later expelled from 
the army, was no relative of these Virginia heroes. 

285. Privateering'. The American cause was greatly ham- 
pered by the lack of a strong naval force. Though France was 
ready to assist with her powerful fleets, these were of little aid 
before the siege of Yorktown, except that they helped to keep 
England occupied on the sea. It is true, England had little to 
fear from our navy, but she suffered much from American 
privateers. They plowed the waters of the English Channel, 
the Irish Sea, and of many other parts of the world. After 
France, Spain, and Holland had declared war against England, 
the navies of these countries were also used in privateering 
against the British. During the Revolution seven hundred 
and ninety-two American privateers captured as prizes six 
hundred British vessels, valued at eighteen million dollars. 
As a result, so much harm was done to England's shipping 
that her ship-owners and merchants bitterly opposed the war, 
while the colonies were literally supporting their forces from 
captured British goods. 

286. Exploits of John Barry. Captain John Barry, a native 
of Ireland and a Catholic, was one of the truest heroes of the 
Revolution. He was distinguished for his skill in equipping 
and handling vessels, as well as for his bravery. He is justly 
termed the "Father and Founder of the American Navy." 
Two of his ships, the Lexington and the Alfred^ were the first 
to hoist the American Stars and Stripes. As commander of the 
Lexington, Barry captured the British man-of-war Edward. 
He fought battles everywhere along the coast, inflicting severe 
losses on the enemy. He was placed by Congress (1794) at 
the head of the list of commanders in the navy. 

At the outbreak of the Revolution, Barry gave up, to use 



214 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



his own manly words, "the finest merchandise ship and the 
first employ in America" to serve the cause of Independence. 
Lord Howe offered him the command of a fine British ship and 
a large sum of money, if he would deliver up the vessel then 
under his command and join the British. Barry indignantly 
gave the noble answer: "I have devoted myself to the cause 
of America, and the Avhole British fleet can not seduce me from 
it. ' ' Barry has often been referred to as " Commodore. ' ' There 
was no such rank in the United States navy until 1862. ' ' Cap- 




A SEA FIGHT OF THE PERIOD 



tain" was the highest rank before that dats. "Commodore" 
was, however, non-officially applied to a captain while in 
command of two or more vessels. 

287. Paul Jones' Triumph. John Paul Jones, lieutenant of 
the Alfred, a small vessel of Barry's squadron, won for America 
the greatest triumph on the sea. In his little ship Ranger 
(1778) he incessantly menaced the safety of British vessels, not 
only on the open sea, but in the very ports of the nation; at 
one time he would dash in and set fire to a ship at anchor; 



SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 



215 



at another, pounce down upon a vessel at sea, and then again, 
like a gust of wind, whirl about and be off, out of harm's reach. 
With the help of Franklin and the French king, Louis XVI, 
Jones was at length placed in command of a small squadron 
of three vessels. To his flagship he gave the name of Bon 
Homme Richard. With the American flag flying from the mast- 
head of this vessel, 
he set sail with his 
little squadron and 
soon encountered 
(September) at 
Flamborough Head a 
fleet of English mer- 
chant vessels con- 
voyed by two men-of- 
war, the Sera pis and 
the Scarhoroiigh. He 
at once gave chase 
and coming up to 
the Serapis, lashed 
her and his own ship 
together. After a 
brilliant but deadly 
hand-to-hand fight 
wiiich raged far into 
the night, the Serapis 
surrendered. Mean- 
while the Scar- 
borough had been captured by one of the other ships. This 
battle was one of the most memorable and desperate ever fought 
upon the ocean, and it greatly humiliated the haughty ' ' Mistress 
of the Sea." 

288. An Attack on Savannah Fails. Admiral D'Estaing, 
arriving from the West Indies, where he had cruised since the 
disastrous attempt upon Newport, now cooperated with Lincoln 




CAPTAIN JOHN BARRY 



216 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

in an attempt to recapture Savannah (September). They were 
driven back, however, with a dreadful loss of life. Among the 
dead were the gallant Polish officer, Pulaski, and the hero of 
Fort Moultrie, Sergeant Jasper. D'Estaing returned to the 
Indies and Lincoln withdrew to South Carolina. 

SIXTH YEAR OF THE WAR — 1780 

289. The British Take Charleston. Clinton and Cornwallis 
now came with an army from New York. Together with 
Prevost, they moved (May), this time not by way of Fort 
Moultrie, but overland from Savannah against Charleston. 
The city was first besieged, then bombarded. De Kalb, sent 
by Washington, was on his way to help Lincoln, but was too 
late to save the city. So Lincoln, cut off from escape and help, 
was forced to surrender. He and his force of some three 
thousand continentals, together with the state militia, became 
prisoners of war. This was the severest blow the Americans 
had yet received. The capture of Lincoln's army left South 
Carolina in the hands of Lord Cornwallis, Tarleton, and Fer- 
guson, who endeavored everywhere to force the stricken inhab- 
itants to acknowledge the royal cause, and treated as rebels 
and traitors those who refused to do so. 

290. The Battle of Camden. Congress now recalled Gates 
from his plantation and placed him in command of the Southern 
army, although Washington would have preferred to entrust 
it to Greene. Without considering the fact that in North 
Carolina there was no Schuyler to plan the campaign in ad- 
vance, and no Arnold or Morgan to assist in carrying it out, 
Congress, nevertheless, hoped that Cornwallis would eventually 
surrender to Gates as Burgoyne had done at Saratoga. Gates 
hurriedly collected a new army in North Carolina, including 
De Kalb and his brave continentals who had been schooled by 
Steuben at Valley Forge. He at once advanced (August) to 
Camden, where he met Cornwallis and sustained the most dis- 
astrous defeat inflicted upon the American army during the 



SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 217 

war. In vain did De Kalb and his brave Maryland and Dela- 
ware continentals try to hold their ground. De Kalb fell, mor- 
tally wounded, while his brave comrades fought desperately 
to the last over his body. Gates, after a succession of remark- 
able blunders, rode panic-stricken from the field, leaving the 
army to its fate. This was the second American army de- 
stroyed in the South in three months and the whole country 
was practically in the hands of the British. After this Gates 
retired from service in utter disgrace. It is related that Charles 
Lee said to Gates when about to leave his Virginia plantation 
to take command of the army in the South, "Take care that 
your Northern laurels do not change to Southern willows." 

291. The Battle of King's Mountain. Cornwallis now tri- 
umphantly pushed on toward North Carolina, but hearing that 
one of his officers. Major Ferguson, had been defeated in a 
sharp battle at King's Mountain (October) by an intrepid body 
of backwoodsmen, including a brave band from west of the 
mountains under Sevier, he retraced his steps and took up his 
abode at "Winnsborough in order to maintain control of the 
South. The brilliant American victory at King's Mountain, 
sometimes called the "Bennington of the South," greatly crip- 
pled Cornwallis, for in it he lost some four hundred of his men, 
including Ferguson, one of the bravest of the British officers. 

292. Exploits of the Partisan Corps. South Carolina, Geor- 
gia, and Florida were in the hands of the British and at the 
mercy of plundering raids of British Tories; but the brave 
state militia under the heroic leaders, Marion, Sumter, Pickens, 
and Henry Lee gave the British little peace in their regained 
province. These citizen soldiers, composed of small bands of 
patriots, often less than one hundred men, were called "parti- 
san corps." They knew all the paths through the woods and 
marshes and were constantly on the alert to thwart hostile 
plans and movements. Their way of fighting surprised the 
British even more than that of the minute-men at Lexington 
and Concord. They were armed with home-made swords, rode 



218 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the fleetest horses, hid in swamps and mountains, and seldom 
slept two nights in the same place. They would destroy a Tory 
camp, cut off stragglers from the main army, shoot pellmell 
into the enemy's quarters, and be off, and safe and sound in a 
distant hiding place almost before any one knew what had 
happened. Marion and his men were particularly famous. He 
was called by the British the "swamp fox," while Sumter, 
equally valiant, was considered by Cornwallis "the greatest 
plague in the country." He acquired the title of "Carolina 
Game Cock." 

Our band is few, but true and tried, our leader frank and bold, 
The British soldier trembles when Marion's name is told; 
Our fortress is the good green wood, our tent the cypress tree; 
We know the forest round us as seamen know the sea. 

— Bryant ^s "Song of Marion's Men." 

293. Arnold's Treason. To complete the year of disaster, 
Benedict Arnold, who had gained so many laurels at Ticon- 
deroga, Quebec, and Saratoga, and was so highly esteemed for 
his generosity and gallantry as soldier, deserted the patriot 
cause and became a traitor. He secretly had treasonable com- 
munication with Clinton and agreed to surrender West Point 
to him for the infamous reward of some thirty thousand dollars 
and a general's commission in the British army (September). 
This fort was the most important post in the country, since it 
controlled the whole line of the Hudson. Clinton had declared : 
"If we succeed in capturing West Point we shall soon end the 
rebellion. ' ' 

Benedict Arnold had received from Washington the com- 
mand of Philadelphia after the withdrawal of Clinton. Here 
he lived very extravagantly and being eventually court-mar- 
tialed for appropriating government money, was sentenced to 
be publicly reprimanded by the commander-in-chief. Wash- 
ington, however, mindful of Arnold's brilliant exploits in the 
service of his country, performed the painful duty with great 
gentleness, sparing Arnold's feelings as much as possible. 



SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 219 

Arnold, however, was stung to resentment and planned revenge. 
Pretending that the severe wounds received at Quebec and 
Saratoga unfitted him for field duty, he asked and obtained 
from Washington the command of West Point. He now saw 
his opportunity, and subsequently meeting the British agent, 
Major Andre, some distance south of West Point, on the west 
bank of the Hudson, made arrangements for the surrender of 
the fort. 

The traitor escaped and was given a command in the British 
army. After the war he lived in great obscurity in England 
and was universally despised. On one occasion, a member of 
Parliament in the act of addressing the House noticed Arnold 
in the gallery, upon which he exclaimed, pointing to the traitor, 
"Mr. Speaker, I will not speak while that man is in the House." 
Arnold carefully preserved his old uniform in which he had 
made his escape from West Point. Just before his death he 
asked to be clothed in it. "Let me die," said he, "in this old 
uniform in which I fought my battles. May God forgive me 
for ever putting on any other." Arnold's treachery was too 
much for even the stout-hearted Washington. On receiving the 
papers found on Andre's person, the greatly grieved chief 
burst into tears, and w^ith a choked voice disclosed the affair 
to Lafayette. The latter said that this was the only occasion 
during the long and seemingly hopeless struggle in which 
Washington gave way for a moment before a reverse of fortune. 

294. The Capture of Andre. Major Andre, after having made 
arrangements with Arnold for the surrender of West Point, 
prepared to return to the British camp. He was disappointed 
to find that his ship, the Vulture, had dropped down the river. 
He was obliged to cross the stream and proceed by land. Near 
Tarrytown he was captured by three patriots who were on the 
lookout for British freebooters. Upon searching Andre they 
found in his stockings papers containing plans of the fort and 
the mode of its expected surrender. Andre was tried and 
hanged as a spy (October) according to the usage of war. 



220 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

SEVENTH YEAR OF THE WAR— 17S1 

295. Discontent in the Army. The opening of the year 1781 
found great discontent in the American army. The gloom of 
Arnold's awful act of treason seemed to be reflected in the 
American winter camp at Morristown. The troops suffered 
scarcely less than did those at Valley Forge. They had for a 
long time received no pay, and, driven to desperation by 
hunger and want of clothing, they began to revolt. The soldiers 
of the Pennsjdvania regiment, on New Year's eve, unable longer 
to endure their sufferings, marched out with their arms to de- 
mand relief from Congress. At Princeton, messengers from .Clin- 
ton tried to induce them to join the British army. This brought 
them to their senses, and after a committee of Congress, waiting 
on them at this place, had satisfied. their demands, they marched 
back to camp. Other mutinies followed, but the soldiers were 
eventually pacified and subdued by promises of Congress and 
by Washington's personal appeal, as well as by severe meas- 
ures. Afterwards, through the exertions of Robert Morris, 
loans were made in France, Spain, and Holland. Congress met 
with great difficulty in its efforts to raise money to pay the 
troops. It could not tax the people, or get enough from the 
states by asking for it. The promissory notes of Congress, 
commonly called paper money, were not, as they are now, as 
good as gold or silver coin, because the government had no 
money to redeem its promises. Consequently, continental cur- 
rency became almost worthless, depreciating in value to two 
cents per dollar in 1779, and to nothing at all in the year fol- 
lowing; hence, the phrase, "not worth a continental." 

296. The Beginning of Winning Back the South— The Battle 
of Cowpens. It has been seen that the numerous defeats of the 
Americans in the South during the past year were followed 
closely by an American victory at King's Mountain. This bat- 
tle, won by the brave Carolina mountaineers, was the beginning 
of the winning back of the South. By the advice of Washing- 



SECOND PERIOD OP THE WAR 



221 



ton, General Nathaniel Greene was now appointed to succeed 
General Gates in the South. With the aid of the brave Daniel 
Morgan, the remnant of De Kalb's continentals, the clever 
Steuben, and the undaunted leaders of the "partisan corps," 
Greene succeeded in raising a third army in the South. He 
began by following the tactics of Washington in New Jersey, 
constantly making sudden and unexpected dashes on the enemy 
and quickly getting away. 

Greene now sent General Morgan against Tarleton, Corn- 




CONTINENTAL CURRENCY 

wallis's ablest officer. The two armies met at Cowpens, South 
Carolina (January). Morgan not only defeated Tarleton 's 
army, but nearly destroyed it. Tarleton was severely wounded 
and narrowly escaped being captured by Colonel William Wash- 
ington, a distant cousin of George Washington. This brilliant 
victory, like that at King's Mountain, greatly crippled Corn- 
wallis and interfered with his plans. At King's Mountain 
Cornwallis lost his best corps of scouts, and at Cowpens his 
light infantry. He sorely needed both in his subsequent pursuit 
of Greene. 

297. Greene's Masterly Retreat. Knowing that the main 
body of the British army was not far distant, Morgan, with 
his prisoners, hurried off and joined General Greene in North 
Carolina. Cornwallis, hearing of Tarleton 's defeat, hastily 



222 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

destroyed his heavy baggage and set \Out in hot pursuit of the 
victors. As Greene's army was too weak to face Cornwallis, 
he retreated and, step by step, led the latter a roundabout 
chase farther and farther into a hostile country, far away 
from his base of supplies at Charleston. Greene finally made a 
narrow escape across the Dan into Virginia, and here Corn- 
wallis gave up the chase (January and February). Greene 
promptly gathered additional troops, recrossed the Dan into 
North Carolina, and gave battle to the British near Guilford 
Court House. 

The Americans were defeated by the superior discipline 
of the enemy, but the latter bought their victories dearly, 
losing about one-fourth of their whole army. The soldiers 
were so famished and tired out, that Cornwallis could not 
even return south to Charleston, and withdrew to Wilming- 
ton, where communication with the English fleet at Charleston 
would be easy. From here he was shortly afterward ordered 
by Clinton to the peninsula of Yorktown, Virginia, which he 
proceeded to fortify. Lafayette and Steuben immediately 
crept upon the neck of the peninsula, ready for action. 

298. Greene's Recovery of the South. Greene had followed 
Cornwallis far enough to see him closed up in Wilmington. 
Then sure of having him out of the way, he struck into the 
South. With the help of Marion, Sumter, and Lee, he made a 
masterly campaign extending over six months, driving the 
British and Tories before him toward Charleston. At Hob- 
kirk's Hill, near Camden, Greene was attacked and defeated 
by the British under Rawdon. The enemy was, however, badly 
crippled and, to save his army, Rawdon beat a hasty retreat to 
Charleston, leaving Camden to Greene. Pushing onward and 
gaining many small victories with the help of Lee and Marion, 
Greene again met the British and was defeated by them at 
Eutaw Springs (September). This was practically the last 
battle of the South. Thus in thirteen months Greene had recov- 
ered the Carolinas and Georgia from British rule. 



SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 223 

299. Cornwallis Entrapped at Yorktown — Siege of Yorktown. 

Meanwhile, Cornwallis had joined Arnold, who had a command 
in Virginia. After vainly trying to force Lafayette to engage 
in battle, and destroying millions of dollars' worth of property, 
he withdrew to Yorktown, whence, according to Clinton's 
orders, he could easily re-enforce the army in New York City 
in case its capture should be attempted by Washington in 
cooperation with a French fleet. 

Washington, hearing that a powerful French fleet, commanded 
by Count De Grasse, was making toward Chesapeake Bay, 
saw his opportunity. His army on the Hudson had been re- 
enforced by six thousand French troops under Count Rocham- 
beau. Leaving behind a small force to feign an attack upon 
New York, Washington secretly slipped away with his com- 
bined forces to the head of Chesapeake Bay, and thence on the 
French fleet to Yorktown, where he joined Lafayette before 
Clinton was fully aware of what had happened. The French 
fleet at once blocked the James and York rivers. Cornwallis 
was now shut up in a trap. For several weeks the Americans 
pressed the siege and bombarded the British works. Escape 
by sea or land was impossible for Cornwallis, so he and his 
whole army, about eight thousand strong, surrendered to 
Washington on October 19, 1781. The fall of Yorktown vir- 
tually terminated the War of Independence. 

300. The Scene of Surrender. A large crowd of citizens as- 
sembled to witness the imposing scene of surrender. The 
troops were drawn up in two columns extending more than 
a mile. On the one side were the French forces, headed by 
Rochambeau, on the other, Washington and his continentals. 
The vanquished army, with colors cased, slowly marched out 
between the ranks while the British military band played the 
quaint melody, "The World Upside Down." Cornwallis, 
feigning illness, did not appear, but sent his sword by General 
O'Hara. Washington directed the sword to be delivered to 
General Lincoln, who, eighteen months before, had surrendered 



224 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

his to Clinton at Charleston. The defeated army was next 
led by Lincoln to an open field where they laid down their 
arms. 

The tidings of this event, so vast in importance, reached Con- 
gress at midnight, four days afterwards. Every heart bounded 
with exultant delight as the watchman pacing the streets of 
Philadelphia cried aloud, ''Past two o'clock and Cornwallis is 
taken ! ' ' The streets were soon thronged with happy men and 
women. The State House bell rang out its notes of gladness. 
To the English government the news came like a death blow, 
for the victory of Yorktown meant not only the independence 
of America, but also the overthrow of the arbitrary power of 
the king and his "friends" in England. The king was soon 
compelled to dismiss his Tory prime minister, Lord North, and 
call back to power those very Whigs who were friends of 
America. Among them were Fox, the younger Pitt, Barre, and 
Burke. The elder William Pitt, Lord Chatham, had died (May 
11, 1778) in consequence of a stroke of apoplexy after an excit- 
ing speech in defense of the colonists and against the proceed- 
ings of the British ministers. 

301. The Treaty of Peace. Though the surrender of Corn- 
wallis practically ended the war, it was still nearly two years 
before peace was made. Many complicated questions delayed 
the treaty. The king was reluctant to grant independence; 
it was difficult to agree on the boundaries; Spain desired that 
the United States should be restricted to the Alleghany Moun- 
tains on the west ; and the right to the Newfoundland fisheries 
was disputed. Meanwhile, Washington, with great skill and 
inflexible determination, managed to keep his greatly discon- 
tented forces together at Newburgh on the Hudson until final 
peace was made. At length the painful period of waiting came 
to an end. A treaty of peace (negotiated by Benjamin Frank- 
lin, John Jay, and John Adams), was finally signed with Eng- 
land by the United States, France, and Spain, at Paris, on 
September 3, 1783. By this treaty: 



SECOND PERIOD OF THE WAR 225 

(a) the United States was recognized as an independent nation ; 
(&) the boundaries fixed were the Great Lakes and the St. 

Lawrence on the north, the Mississippi on the west, and 

Florida on the south; 

(c) the United States was given equal rights with Great 

Britain to the Newfoundland fishing banks and to the 
navigation of the Mississippi and the Great Lakes. 

(d) Florida, then including parts of Alabama and Mississippi, 

was given to Spain. Spain continued to hold New Or- 
leans and the Louisiana territory. 
A provision of the treaty required Congress to request the 
state governments to repeal laws which had been made, con- 
fiscating the property of Tories and hindering the collection of 
private debts due the British merchants from the Americans. 
Congress made the request, but the states did not heed it. The 
Tories were so badly treated that about one hundred thousand 
left the country, those in the South going to Florida and the 
Bahamas, and those in the North, to Canada. Great Britain, 
seeing that the provisions of the treaty concerning the Tories 
and the collection of debts were not fulfilled, left small garri- 
sons of troops at Ogdensburg, Oswego, Niagara, Erie, San- 
dusky, Detroit, and Mackinaw until the first of June, 1796. 

302. The Armies Disband. Washington made a farewell ad- 
dress to his army at Newburgh and disbanded it on November 
3, 1783. The British had evacuated Savannah (July 11) the 
previous year. On November 25 of the same year the British 
troops, then collected at New York under General Guy Carleton 
(who had succeeded General Clinton, 1782), embarked for 
home ; while Washington, at the head of a large procession 
of citizens and soldiers, entered the city. The British evac- 
uated Charleston (December 14) 1783. Washington met his 
assembled generals for the last time and bade them an afi'ec- 
tionate farewell. "With a heart full of love and gratitude," 
he said, ' ' I now take leave of you, most devoutly wishing that 
your latter days may be as prosperous and as happy as your 



226 



A HISTORY OP TITE UNITED STATES 



former ones have been glorious and lionorable." He then for- 
mally resigned his commission as commander-in-chief to Con- 
gress (December 23) which was sitting at Annapolis, and went 
back, a private citizen, to his home at Mount Vernon, in Vir- 
ginia, where he was followed by the gratitude of his fellow- 
countrymen. 



REVIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL BATTLES OF THE REVOLUTION 



Date 



17' 



1776. 

1777. 

1778. 

1779. 

1780. 
1781. 



Location 



Lexington. . . . 

Tic-ondt roga . . 
Bunker Hill . . . 



Quebec 

Fort Moultrie . 

Long Island. . 



White Plains. . . . 
Ft. Washington. 

Trenton 

Princeton 

Ticonderoga .... 
Fort SchuyliT. . . 

Bcniiiiigtdn 

Brand.N Willi'. . . . 

Stillwater 

Fort Mercer. . . . 

Monmouth 

Wyoming 

Rhode Island. . . 

Savannah 

Suubury 

stony Point .... 
I'aulus Hook. . . . 

Savannah 

Monk's Corner. . 

Charleston 

King's Mountain 
Cowpens. ...... 

Guilford C. H. . . . 

Fort Griswold. . . 
Eutaw Springs. . 
Yorktown 



Commanders 

Am(>rican British 



Parker 



Allen. . . 
Prescott . 



Montgomery . . 
Moultrie 



Putnam. 



McDougall 

]\Iagaw 

Washington . . . . 

Washington . . . . 

St. Clair 

Arnold 

Stark 

Washington . . . . 

Gates 

Col. Greene. . . . 

Washington. . . . 

Zeb. Butler 

Sullivan 

Robt. Howe. . . . 

Lane 

Wayne 

Lee 

Lincoln 

Huger 

Lincoln 

Campbell 

Morgan - 

Greene 

Ledyard 

Greene 

Washington 
DeGrasse 
Rochainbeau. 



Smith and 

I'itcairn 

DeLaplace 

Howe and 

Clinton 

Clinton 

Clinton and Sir 

Peter I'arker . . 
Howe and 

Clinton 

Ilowe 

Howe. . 

Rahl 

Mawhood 

Burgovne 

St. Leger 

Itaum 

Howe 

Burgoyne 

Donop 

Clinton 

.Tohn Butler 

Pigot 

Campbell 

I'revost 

.Tohnson 

Sutherland 

Prevost 

Tarleton 

Clinton 

Ferguson 

Tarleton 

Cornwallis 

Arnold 

Stewart 



Cornwallis . 



Army 
Successful 



.Vmerican 
American 

British 
British 

.Vmerican 

British 
British 
British 
.Vmerican 
American 
British 
-Vmerican 
American 
British 
American 
American 
-Vmerican 
British 
-Vmerican 
British- 
British 
-Vmerican 
-Vmerican 
British 
British 
British 
-Vmerican 
.Vmerican 
British 
British 
Indecisive 



Vmerican 



CHAPTER XV 

THE CEITICAL PERIOD OF OUE HISTORY— 1781-1789 
THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION 

303. Extent and Significance. The critical period of our 
history is that extending from the siege of Yorktown in 1781 
to the adoption of the Constitution in 1789. The conditions 
and events leading to the framing and adoption of the Con- 
stitution will now be considered. The thirteen states having 
declared themselves independent of England, and having made 
this declaration good by bringing to a favorable outcome the 
war for independence, could now take a place among tlie 
nations of the world. Yet the new-born nation had many dif- 
ficulties to overcome before it could rightfully claim this 
place, for, quoting the words later used by Calhoun, "The 
Declaration of Independence changed the colonies from prov- 
inces subject to Great Britain to states subject to nobody." 
The Articles of Confederation under which the colonies were 
governed from 1781 to 1789 did not constitute them a nation, 
but merely formed them into a league of states. The greatest 
problem remaining to be solved was, how to make permanent 
the blessings obtained by the recent long and bloody struggle. 

304. Significance of the Articles of Confederation. The Arti- 
cles of Confederation were the outcome of honest and repeated 
efforts on the part of the American colonies and states toward 
some definite plan of vmion. Their adoption was one of the 
most important events in our history. Superior to any plan 
of union hitherto attempted, the articles were truly a long 
stride toward a more perfect confederation. For without tliem, 
the thirteen states that had struggled together for indepen- 
dence might have formed thirteen independent governments. 

227 



228 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

The fact that the states agreed to even this loose bond of 
union bespoke a spirit of nationalism which led later to better 
results. Notwithstanding the importance of the articles from 
an historical standpoint, they were nevertheless not only de- 
fective but a failure ; for, making no provisions for an executive 
to enforce the laws, or for a national court to settle disputes 
between the states, they left Congress powerless to enforce its 
laws except by war. Under the Articles of Confederation, fur- 
thermore. Congress could not raise revenue, and since it could 
not raise revenue it could not pay the interest on its debts, much 
less the debts themselves. Consequently the government had 
no credit. Nor could Congress regulate commerce; In fact. 
Congress could only recommend or advise, possessing only such 
powers as the states grudgingly gave it. Tlie grave conse- 
quences resulting from the defects of the Articles of Confed- 
eration gradually led the people to realize that they must 
establish a stronger central government. 

305. Disunion Among the States. During the war, the bond 
of a common cause had united the states. The war over, the 
old jealousies and conflicting interests returned. The smaller 
states, distrustful of the larger ones, feared that they would be 
swallowed up by them, while the more populous states thought 
that they would not have proper representation. They quar- 
reled with each other about boundary lines, about commerce, 
about trade ; and the same spirit which made tliem desire to 
be free from the mother country, made them distrust Congress 
and shrink from vesting it with necessary, authority. As a 
consequence, universal distrust and discontent grcAV worse and 
worse. The thirteen states were fast drifting apart and becom- 
ing thirteen hostile nations, ready to draw the sword against 
one another. 

It must not be thought, however, that the people were with- 
out government during this time. All the states adopted new 
constitutions (1775-1781) except Rhode Island and Connecticut, 
and these retained their liberal colonial charters. But these 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 229 

constitutions adopted by the representatives of the people in- 
habiting the several states, created a complete government, 
separate and independent for each of the states. Most of the 
new state governments were only variations of the colonial 
forms which had been in existence for over a century. 

306. Defects That Wrought a Cure. There were three main 
defects in the Confederation which soon proved so serious that 
they forced the people to realize the need of a stronger gov- 
ernment. Thus it may be said that the defects wrought their 
own cure. These defects were: 

(a) Congress could not pay its debts; 

( 5 ) it could not regulate trade ; and 

(c) it lacked the authority to preserve order. 

307. Drift Toward Monarchy Because Congress Cannot Pay 
Its Debts. Congress, as we have seen, having no power to levy 
taxes, could not pay its debts. The large sums borrowed from 
foreign nations were soon spent, while paper money was al- 
most worthless. As a result, the unpaid, poverty-stricken 
soldiers with their families felt most keenly this deplorable 
financial weakness of the government. "While the army was 
encamped at Newburgh on the Hudson, the so-called Newburgh 
Addresses were published anonymously, calling a meeting of 
officers to consider the best means to press their claims on the 
attention of Congress. They were written in inflammatory 
language, threatening, among other things, that the army would 
not disband on the conclusion of peace unless its grievances 
were in the meantime redressed. The army was on the verge 
of revolt, ready to take up arms against Congress. Washington, 
however, prevented this. They next set on foot a scheme to 
make him king, and thus establish a monarchy, the very form 
of government against which they had rebelled and from which 
they had fought so long to free themselves. Washington, of 
course, spurned their proposal and severely rebuked them for 
such folly. The soldiers not realizing the helplessness of Con- 
gress, considered themselves treated with injustice and ingrati- 



230 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tude. One of them, voicing the sentiment of tlie army, is said 
to have declared: "We begin to hate the country for its neg- 
lect of us and we have lost all confidence in Congress." 

308. Commerce Suffers Because Cong-ress Cannot Regulate 
Trade. Great Britain refused to make a commercial treaty 
with America, because it knew that any state might break a 
treaty; and since Congress could not enforce those provisions 
of the peace treaty which concerned the Tories and the collec- 
tion of private debts, England, in retaliation,, closed her West 
India ports against American merchants and imposed a high 
duty on American imports. Congress, having no power to 
regulate trade, could not strike back by laying duties on Eng- 
lish goods. The retaliatory measures of the individual states 
were of little effect. As a consequence, American shipbuilding 
and foreign commerce were almost destroyed. Nor was our 
domestic trade in a less deplorable condition. The states by 
their navigation laws and high tariffs were actually making 
commercial war upon one another. No farmer could freely buy 
and sell outside of his own state. New York, for instance, 
taxed the products coming to its markets from Connecticut and 
New Jersey, while New Jersey levied a tax of some eighteen 
hundred dollars upon a lighthouse built by New York City at 
Sandy Hook. Similar troubles arose between other states. 
Under these conditions the United States was rapidly losing 
its standing al)road. 

309. Difficulties Arising from the Fact That Congress Could 
Not Preserve Order. Congress not having the command of a 
single soldier, could not protect itself even from insult, and 
was driven from Philadelphia on one occasion by a band of 
mutinous soldiers ; much less was Congress in a condition to 
protect the rights of citizens. 

After the Revolution, our imports had to be paid for in specie. 
Our imports were so much more than our exports that the 
country was soon drained of its gold and silver. Owing to 
this scarcity of specie and the worthlessness of paper money, 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 231 

the people found it impossible to pay their taxes and debts. 
Consequently, their lands, cattle, and products were taken for 
taxes and mortgages, while the debtors themselves were throAvn 
into prison. The debtor class of almost every state sought 
means to free themselves from their debts. Some demanded 
the issue of paper money which, resting on no foundation save 
the credit of the state governments, was of little value. Others 
demanded the so-called Stay Laws, which were enactments to 
delay the collection of debts. Others again demanded Tender 
Laws, which permitted a debtor to ofiPer goods, at certain rates, 
in discharge of his debts. 

Shays' Rebellion was another outcome of the inability of 
Congress to preserve order. In western Massachusetts several 
hundred angry farmers rose in insurrection under Daniel Shays, 
a captain of the Revolutionary War. They sought to close the 
court houses and stop suits against debtors, and even tried to 
seize the arsenal at Springfield for the purpose of securing 
muskets and cannon. The rebellion was subdued after some 
months by a strong force of the state militia under General 
Lincoln. 

These Massachusetts farmers were ordinarily law-abiding 
citizens, but could not live without buying and selling, nor 
could they buy and sell without markets and money. The coun- 
try was suffering from want of uniform currency and of trade 
opportunities which the states should have given Congress 
poAver to provide. 

310. The People Are Led to Accept a Stronger Central Gov- 
ernment. All these and many other similar alarming experi- 
ences eventually led the people to realize that they must risk 
a stronger central government. Some of the nation's greatest 
men (foremost among them, Washington, Hamilton, Madison, 
and Franklin), were untiring in their efforts to show the people 
that a change was necessary. Washington, even during the 
war, strongly urged the states to give Congress more power. 
For a number of years he spoke and wrote to this effect and 



232 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

proved himself as able a statesman as he had been a military- 
leader. Next to Washington stood Alexander Hamilton with 
his famous letters and papers on the defects of the government 
and their remedy. James Madison of Virginia actively aided 
Washington and Hamilton in Congress, while Franklin, by let- 
ters from abroad and vigorous speeches, strove to educate the 
people toward the same end. 

311. A National Land System Forms a Bond of Union Be- 
tween the States. Seven of the thirteen original colonies 
claimed the country as far west as the Mississippi, whereas the 
remaining six states, having fixed western boundaries, could 
not claim any part of these western lands. The Northwest 
Territory, the stretch of country between the Ohio and the 
Great Lakes and between the Alleghanies and the Mississippi, 
won by Clark's conquest and the late peace treaty, was claimed, 
all or in part, by each of four states. Massachusetts and Con- 
necticut claimed to extend west to the Mississippi by virtue of 
their charters. New York claimed all of the Northwest Terri- 
tory on the ground of an agreement with the Iroquois Indians ; 
while Virginia laid a double claim to the whole territory by 
reason of her charter and of Clark's conquest. These conflict- 
ing claims led to bitter disputes, in which Maryland took a 
leading part, refusing to ratify the Articles of Confederation 
until the claimants of the western territory should relinquish 
to the national government for the common good, all these 
claims. 

After long and hot discussions. New York, taking the lead, 
finally yielded her claims. The remaining six states "one by 
one followed her example. Connecticut, however, kept a tract 
of land along the southern shores of Lake Erie called the 
AVestern Reserve. The common possession of the Northwest 
Territory did much to hold the states together, and in securing 
national control Maryland had done the nation a great service. 

312. The Ordinance of 1787. Now that the land cessions were 
made, many New England veterans desired to settle in the 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 233 

present state of Ohio. The Congress of the Confederation, in 
one of its last and best acts, passed the famous Ordinance of 
1787. This measure provided : 

{(i) for the government of the Northwest Territory; 
(&) that the Territory be divided into not less than three nor 
more than five states (Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
- and Wisconsin) ; 
(c) that education be encouraged; 
{d) that there be religious freedom; 

(e) that slavery be forever prohibited — runaway slaves, how- 
ever, to be returned to their masters. 

This Ordinance became a model for later organization of 
territories and is classed in importance with the Declaration 
of Independence and the Constitution. In comment upon it, 
Webster says : ' ' We are accustomed to praise the lawgivers of 
antiquity — but I doubt whether one single law from any law- 
giver, ancient or modern, has produced effects of more distinct, 
marked and lasting character than the Ordinance of 1787." 

313. First Steps Toward a National Convention. Virginia 
and ]\Iaryland wished to come to some agreement concerning 
tlie use of Chesapeake Bay and the Potomac. Their delegates 
met for this purpose at Alexandria (1785) and wisely concluded 
that since the states trading with Virginia and Massachusetts 
would be affected by such a commercial treaty all the states 
ought to take part and help to frame some general laws for 
the regulation of trade. Therefore a circular letter was sent 
to all the states inviting them to join in a great trade conven- 
tion to be held in the following year at Annapolis. 

Delegates from only five states (Virginia, Delaware, Penn- 
sylvania, New York, New Jersey) responded to the call. Noth- 
ing final could be accomplished because of the small repre- 
sentation and the limited powers of the delegates. It was clear 
also that even if all the states should agree on laws for regu- 
lating trade, such laws would be of no avail without a central 
authority to enforce them. So, before adjourning, the dele- 



234 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

gates agreed on a resolution, framed by Alexander Hamilton, 
which proposed that Congress call a great national convention, 
to be held in Philadelphia, for the purpose of amending the 
Articles of Confederation. The people and the states still 
hesitated, but Shays' Rebellion in Massachusetts and the dan- 
ger of similar uprisings in other states induced all the states, 
except Rhode Island, to appoint some of their ablest men as 
delegates to a great national convention. 

314. The Convention Frames and Adopts the Constitution. 
The Convention met in Philadelphia (May 25). Fifty-five 
delegates attended, and Washington was unanimously chosen 
president. This, one of the most memorable of the world's 
assemblies, remained in secret session almost four months. As 
the Articles of Confederation were too defective to admit of 
successful revision, it was decided to frame an entirely new 
Constitution. This was a very bold resolve, since the states 
sent their delegates with the understanding that the Articles 
of Confederation were to be revised. Hence it was feared that 
the new Constitution would be rejected because the convention 
had no authority to set aside the Articles of Confederation 
except by the unanimous consent of the states. Nevertheless, 
a few of the Virginia delegates under the lead of Madison 
drew up a plan of government very much like our present Con- 
stitution. A South Carolina plan was later modeled after that 
of the Virginia delegates, with some original features, the most 
distinctive of which was the provision for a president who was 
to be called "His Excellency." The New Jersey plan was 
scarcely more than the revised Articles of Confederation. Ham- 
ilton offered a fourth plan, which provided that the chief 
executive hold office for life and have supreme executive 
authority. There were many stormy debates, but by judicious 
compromises, the Constitution of the United States was framed 
and adopted by the convention (September 17, 1787). Thirty- 
nine of the fifty-five delegates signed the Constitution. The 
other sixteen would not sign because they objected to certain 




JOHN MARSHALL DANIEL WEBSTER 

JAMES MADISON ALEXANDER HAMILTON 

Makers and Interpreters of the Constitution 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 235 

claiises which they believed interfered with the rights of the 
states. 

The Constitutional Convention was composed of the most 
able and eminent statesmen and soldiers of the nation. Here 
were present Washington, the father and support of the 
nation; the venerable Franklin, the most aged member (over 
eighty), noted for his wisdom and experience; the scholarly 
Madison, the main author and defender of the Constitution ; 
Oliver Ellsworth, later Chief Justice of the Supreme Court; 
the brilliant Hamilton, who, though one of the youngest mem- 
bers, was perhaps the greatest political thinker of the assem- 
bly. Jefferson and John Adams were both in Europe, the one 
serving as minister to France, the other to England. John 
Hancock, Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, and Richard Henry Lee 
did not favor the Constitution, and hence absented themselves. 
Otis, insane from the effects of a wound received in the head 
during the non-tax controversies, had been killed (1783) by a 
stroke of lightning. 

315. The Constitution a Series of Compromises. The Consti- 
tution being, as John Adams aptly said, "extorted from the 
grinding necessities of a reluctant people," was naturally a 
series of compromises, between the larger and the smaller states, 
between the Federalists and Anti-Federalists, and between the 
North and the South. It was chiefly on the basis of the fol- 
lowing four compromises that the Constitution was adopted 
by the convention : 

(«) the small states were afraid of being overpowered by the 
larger ones. Hence the Connecticut compromise, which 
provided for equal representation in the Senate, was 
framed to satisfy the small states; while to pacify the 
large states, representation in the House of Representa- 
tives was to be proportioned to the population, and all 
bills of revenue were to arise in this House. 
(6) to please the South, five negroes were to be counted as 
equal to three white persons in determining the repre- 



236 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

sentation; while to favor the North the same proportion 
of negro population was to be considered for direct 
taxation ; 

(c) to please the South, the foreign slave trade was to con- 

tinue without interference for twenty years (1808). No 
duties were ever to be paid on exports. To please the 
North, Congress should have power to regulate com- 
merce by a majority vote, instead of a two-thirds vote ; 

(d) to satisfy the Federalists, the President was vested with 

great power. He was entrusted with the enforcement of 
all laws and was made commander-in-chief of the army 
and navy. The Anti-Federalists were pacified by a pro- 
vision in the Constitution for checking the authority of 
the chief executive in numerous ways,. in case he should 
try to abuse his trust. 
The dividing line between the authority of the central gov- 
ernment and the several states was somewhat vaguely defined, 
this being such a sensitive point that if either side had insisted 
on expressing in words something more definite, no agreement 
could have been reached ; and to the vague terms of this com- 
promise may be traced many of the difficult problems of later 
history. 

316. The Plan of the Constitutioii. According to the Con- 
stitution the government was divided into three depart- 
ments : 

(a) the legislative, or law-making power, vested in Congress; 
(&) the judiciary, or law-interpreting power, vested in the 

Supreme Court and inferior courts ; 
(c) the executive, or law-enforcing power, vested in a Presi- 
dent, a Vice-president, and other officers. 
Congress was to consist of two Houses, the House of Repre- 
sentatives, elected by the people, and the Senate, elected by the 
state legislatures. 

317. The States Ratify the Constitution. Congress submitted 
the Constitution to the states for ratification. The people of 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 237 

each state chose delegates to conventions which shoukl accept 
or reject the new plan of government. 

Great excitement and stirring discussions for and against 
the Constitution at once arose and divided the people into two 
parties. The friends of the Constitution, called Federalists, 
Avere led by Washington, ]\Iadison, and Hamilton. The oppo- 
nents of the Constitution, called Anti-Federalists, were led by 
the brilliant statesmen Jefferson, Patrick Henry, Samuel 
Adams, and John Hancock, They were jealous of Congress, 
fearing that too much national power might lead to the estab- 
lishment of a monarchy. These were our first political parties. 

Within a year, however (before August, 1788), all the states, 
except Rhode Island and North Carolina, adopted the Consti- 
tution. These two states were treated as foreign nations, and 
therefore soon came to terms (1789-1790). Some of the states 
ratified the Constitution in the hope that amendments would 
be added, guaranteeing protection to the life, liberty, and prop- 
erty of the people, and securing them against the perils which 
beset them before the war. 

The new Constitution when ratified by eleven states was pre- 
sented to, and accepted by the Congress of the Confederation 
(September 20, 1788), then sitting in the City Hall in New 
York ; it was furthermore ordered that the government un- 
der the new Constitution should go into effect March 4, 1789, 
in the city of New York; with this final act the Congress of 
the Confederation closed its last session and its members dis- 
persed without the formality of an adjournment. 

When nine states had ratified the Constitution (1788), the 
people knew that its adoption was secure. The event was cele- 
brated by the suspension of business, the chiming of bells, ju- 
bilant processions, the booming of cannon, and the blazing of 
bonfires. The people of Philadelphia celebrated with especial 
enthusiasm this great event; for within their city the first 
Continental Congress had met (1774) ; independence was de- 
clared (177G) ; and the Constitutional Convention was held 



238 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(1787). New York City honored the occasion by a parade in 
Avhich a ship on wheels, representing the ' ' Ship of State, ' ' was 
drawn through the streets by ten white horses. The name of 
Alexander Hamilton, the State's great defender of the Con- 
stitution, was emblazoned in large letters on the platform up- 
holding the ship. 

318. The Constitution— Bill of Rights. The Constitution of 
the United States may be defined as a written document, explain- 
ing how our government is organized, and what powers the 
various parts have. The government under the Constitution 
was far stronger than the one it replaced. The national gov- 
ernment was no longer to live by the grace of the states. It 
was supreme in all that concerned the nation at large. It 
had the sole power to coin money, regulate commerce, fix 
weights and measures, declare war and negotiate treaties with 
foreign nations; all its powers were specified in the Constitu- 
tion. Still much poAver was left to the states. These had con- 
trol over all their individual affairs and could exercise all 
powers of government not specifically forbidden in the Con- 
stitution. The purpose and provisions of the Constitution are 
set forth in its preamble. (See Appendix.) 

As framed and adopted by the thirteen original states, it 
was the same as we still have it, with tlie exception of some 
amendments, seventeen in number (1914). The new Con- 
gress, organized after the adoption of the Constitution, sub- 
mitted (1789) to the state legislatures twelve amendments, 
ten of which were ratified (1791) and added to the Constitu- 
tion as the Bill of Rights. These amendments may be re- 
garded as a part of the original Constitution. 

319. The Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention. 
Washington, in his official journal, kept an account of tlie pro- 
ceedings of the convention. This he later placed in the pub- 
lic archives (1796). Little can be gathered from his journal 
with regard to what the members said in their stirring de- 
bates. In this regard James Madison, the Father of the Con- 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OP OUR HISTORY 239 

stitution, did invaluable service for posterity. He attended 
every day, and took careful notes on the various discussions. 
These notes he wrote out at night. Madison's "Journal" was 
published and is our most important single volume of Ameri- 
can history. "The Federalist," one of the best works ever 
written on the Constitution and the science of government, 
is a book in which are collected eighty-five essays, fifty of 
which were written by Hamilton, thirty by Madison, and five 
by Jay. These essays were originally circulated in the news- 
papers at the time when the states were considering the ratifi- 
cation of the Constitution. Our great statesmen of more recent 
times, such as Webster, Calhoun, and Clay, resorted to "The 
Federalist" for light on disputed points in the Constitution. 

320. Patriotism Among Catholics. We have seen that the 
discovery and exploration of America and the subsequent 
christianizing and civilizing of the Indians were preeminently 
Catholic enterprises; also that the colonial times were dark 
and intolerant for Catholics. The opposition of the colonies 
to the Quebec Act proved plainly that the old anti-Catholic 
prejudices w^ere still very much alive. During the war, how- 
ever, the colonial Catholics, forgetting the many wrongs of 
the past, unanimously supported the patriot cause. Nor did 
they distinguish themselves only in the army and navy, but 
also in council halls and legislatures. In the day of trial the 
Catholic faith proved the grandeur of its principles. It pro- 
duced no traitors, no oppressors of their country. After the 
American alliance with Catholic France, the law excluding 
Catholics from civil rights was repealed. With this event 
dawned a new era for Catholicity in America. 

Among prominent Catholic leaders in the army may be men- 
tioned : Stephen Moylan, the French Counts, Lafayette and 
Rochambeau, the noble Poles, Kosciusko and Pulaski, the Ger- 
man Barons, Steuben and De Kalb, and the Indian chief, Orono. 
Stephen Moylan occupied one after another, offices of trust 
in the American army and rounded out the full measure of his 



240 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



service with General Greene in the southern campaign at the 
close of the war. William Paca, a signer of the Declaration 
of Independence, held numerous political offices in his own 

state, and was a member of 
the State convention which 
ratified the federal Consti- 
tution. Thomas Fitzsimmon 
was a member of the First 
Continental Congress, took 
part in the Trenton cam- 
paign, and was a member of 
the convention that framed 
the Constitution of the 
United States. Daniel Car- 
roll of Maryland was the 
only other Catholic member. 
Eminent Catholics in the 
navy were Captain John 
Barry and Jeremiah 
'Brien. Catholics who fig- 
ured prominently in Congress were the famous Charles and 
Daniel Carroll, William Paca, and Thomas Fitzsimmon. There 
was an entire Catholic regiment, sons of Ireland, in the Penn- 
sylvania line. Washington's personal guard, the flower and 
choice of the army, was largely composed of Catholics. 

At the close of the war a solemn ''Te Deum" was chanted 
(November 4, 1781) in one of the Catholic churches in Phila- 
delphia. Members of the United States Congress, Washington, 
Lafayette, and many of the distinguished generals and citi- 
zens attended. 

The Catholics of the United States, in common with their 
fellow-citizens, hailed with joy the election of George Wash- 
ington as first President under the new Constitution. Before 
the inauguration, Bishop Carroll, on behalf of the Catholic 
clergy, united with the representatives of the Catholic laity 




MARQUIS DE LAFAYETTE 



THE CRITICAL PERIOD OF OUR HISTORY 241 

(Charles Carroll of Carrolltoii, Daniel Carroll of Maryland, 
Dominic Lynch of New York, and Thomas Fitzsimmon of 
Pennsylvania) in an address of congratulation to the new 
President. The memorable and cordial reply of "Washington 
"To the Roman Catholics of the United States" was as fol- 
lows: "I hope ever to see America among the foremost na- 
tions in examples of justice and liberality; and I presume 
that your fellow-citizens will not forget the patriotic part 
which you took in the accomplishment of their Revolution, 
and the establishment of their government, or the important 
assistance they received from a nation in which the Roman 
Catholic faith is professed. . . . May the members of your 
Society in America, animated alone by the pure spirit of Chris- 
tianity, and still conducting themselves as the faithful sub- 
jects of our free government, enjoy every temporal and spir- 
itual felicity." 

With the birth of the new nation, the ultimate outcome of a 
fourteen-year struggle for independence and nationality, we 
may fittingly close this eventful epoch with the following ex- 
tract from the Pastoral Letter of the Fathers of the Third 
Plenary Council of Baltimore (December 7, 1884) : 

"We consider the establishment of our Country's inde- 
pendence, the shaping of its Liberties and Laws, as a work of 
special Providence; its framers 'building better than they 
knew,' the Almighty's Hand guiding them." 



CHEONOLOGICAL REVIEW 

1763-1776 
George ITI is king of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales, and of 
the English colonies in America. 
Louis XV reigns in France. 

George III. 1760-1820. 

1765. The Stamp Act is passed (March 22). 

The Stamp Act Congress meets in New York City 
(October). 

1766. The Stamp Act is repealed (March 18). 

1767. The Townshend Acts are passed (June).- 

1768. The British troops arrive in Boston (September). 

1770. The Boston Massacre occurs (March). 

The Townshend Acts, with the exception of a tax on 
tea, are repealed (April 12). 

1771. The colonial forces are defeated in a pitched battle 
in North Carolina. 

1772. The British vessel Gaspee is destroyed. 

1773. The Boston Tea Party occurs (December 16). 

1774. The "Five Intolerable Acts" are passed (March 31). 
The First Continental Congress meets in Philadelphia 
(September 5). 

1775. The War begins with Battle of Lexington ; American 
victory over the British under Pitcairn (April 19). 

. Ethan Allen and Benedict Arnold capture Ticonderoga 
(May 10). 

The Second Continental Congress assembles (May). 
Washington is chosen commander-in-chief (June 15). 
The Americans under Prescott suffer a ''victorious" 
defeat from the British under Gage at Bunker Hill. 
General Warren is killed (June 17). 
Washington takes command and organizes a conti- 
nental army (July). 

242 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 243 

Montreal surrenders to Montgomery (November 13). 
Montgomery and Arnold are defeated before Quebec. 
Montgomery is killed (December 31). 
1776. The Americans under Washington force the British 
under Howe to evacuate Boston (March 17). 
Captain John Barry captures the British man-of-war 
Edward (April 7). 

The British under Clinton are repulsed at Charles- 
ton by the American garrison, in command of Colonel 
Moultrie (June 28). 

George III hires Hessians from Germany to fight 
against the colonies. 
Declaration of Independence adopted July 4, 1776. 

1776-1784 

The Continental Congress and the various State governments rule in 

America. 

George III is king of England, Ireland, Scotland, and Wales. 

Louis XVI reigns in France. 

1776. The Americans under Sullivan are defeated by the 
British under Howe in the Battle of Long Island 
(August 27). 

The Americans are defeated in the White Plains and 
Harlem skirmishes by the British under Howe (Oc- 
tober). 

The British commanded by Howe take Forts Wash- 
ington and Lee on the Hudson (November). 
Washington and his troops retreat through New Jer- 
sey (November and December). 

The Americans commanded by Washington capture 
the Hessians under Rahl at Trenton (December 25). 

1777. Morris raises money to save the army (January). 
The Americans under Washington win battle at Prince- 
ton against the British under Howe (January 2). 
Lafayette and companions arrive in America. 



244 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

1777. Congress adopts the Stars and Stripes as the Ameri- 
can flag (June 14). 

Burgoyne captures Forts Ticonderoga, Crown Point, 
and Edward (July). 

The Americans under Herkimer and Arnold defeat 
the British and Indians under St. Leger and the 
Mohawk chief Brandt in a bloody battle at Oriskany 
(August 2). 

General Schuyler is superseded by General Gates 
(August 10). 

The American under Gates win battle of Bennington 
against the British under Burgoyne (August 16). 
The Americans under Washington are defeated by the 
British under Howe in the battle of Brandy wine (Sep- 
tember 11). 

Congress leaves Philadelphia for York (September 
19). 

The Americans under Gates fight an indecisive battle 
against the British under Burgoyne at Bemis Heights 
(September). 

The British take possession of Philadelphia and en- 
camp there and at Germantown (September 25, 26). 
The Americans under Washington are defeated by the 
British under Howe in a hard-fought battle at Ger- 
mantown (October 4). 

The Americans under Gates, led on by the bravery 
of Arnold and Morgan defeat the British under Bur- 
goyne at Stillwater (October 7), 
The Americans under Gates, again headed by Arnold 
and Morgan, defeat the British under Burgoyne at 
Saratoga and force them to surrender (October 17). 
The Continental Congress adopts the Articles of Con- 
federation (November 15). 

Washington goes into winter quarters at Valley 
Forge (December 11). 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 



245 



Conway forms a conspiracy against Washington. 

1778. France acknowledges the independence of the United 
States and agrees to help her cause with money, ships, 
and men (February 6). 

Baron Steuben helps Washington to discipline his 
army (May). 

England offers to make peace by repealing her op- 
pressive laws (June). 

The British, hearing of the French alliance, leave 
Philadelphia for New York (June 18). 
The Americans under Washington pursue the British 
under Clinton and attack them at Monmouth Court- 
house (June 28). 

Washington encamps at White Plains, Clinton at New 
York. 

The Tories and Iroquois, under Butler and Brandt, 
massacre the inhabitants of the Wyoming Valley 
(July 3). 

A French fleet under D'Estaing arrives in America 
(July 29). 

The Tories and Iroquois under Johnson and Brandt 
massacre inhabitants of Cherry Valley (November). 
The British under General Prevost capture Savannah 
from the Americans under Lincoln (December 29). 
Paul Jones, as captain of the Ranger, incessantly 
harasses British vessels. 

1779. The Americans under General Wayne recapture Stony 
Point from the British (July 15). 
The Americans under Lighthorse Harry Lee capture 
Paulus Hook. 

The Americans under Sullivan completely overthrow 
the combined forces of Johnson, Butler, and Brandt 
at the present site of Elmira, New York (July). 
George Rogers Clark finally captures Vincennes and 
thus wins the Northwest for the United States. 



246 A HTSTOKY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Paul Jones captures the British frigates Serapis and 
Scarborough off coast of Flamborough (September 23). 
The Americans under Lincoln, and the French un- 
der D'Estaing, attempting to recapture Savannah, 
are repulsed by the British. The brave Pulaski is 
killed (October 9). 

1780. The Americans under Lincoln surrender at Charles- 
ton to the British under Clinton (May 12). 

The first French army arrives at Newport, Rhode 
Island (July 10). 

The Americans under Gates are defeated by the Brit- 
ish under Cornwallis at Camden (August 16). 
Arnold betrays his country and makes good his es- 
cape to the British army (September). 
Major Andre is executed as a spy (October 2). 
The western pioneers under Sevier and other militia 
captains defeat the British under Ferguson at King's 
Mountain (October 7). 

Greene is put in command of the Southern army (De- 
cember 2). 
Patriot bands harass the British army in the South. 

1781. A part of Washington's army revolts, but is persuaded 
to return to duty. 

The Americans under Morgan defeat the British un- 
der Tarleton at Cowpens (January 17). 
Greene retreats before Cornwallis (January and Feb- 
ruary). 

The Articles of Confederation are ratified by Mary- 
land, the thirteenth and last State to take this action, 
and the Continental Congress becomes the Congress 
of the Confederation (March 1). 

The Americans under Greene are defeated by the 
British at Guilford Court House. The British, badly 
crippled, retreat to Wilmington (March 15). 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 247 

The French and American armies watch New York 

(June and July). 

A French fleet arrives in Chesapeake Bay (Aug. 30). 

The Americans under Greene are defeated by the 

British under Rawdon at Eutaw Springs. The Caro- 

linas and Georgia are practically recovered from 

British rule (September 8). 

The combined American and French land and water 

forces begin the siege of Yorktown (September 28). 

The British under Cornwallis surrender at Yorktown, 

Virginia (October 19). 

1782. The British evacuate Savannah (July). 

1783. Peace is signed with England by the United States, 
France, and Spain, at Paris (September 3). 

The American army is disbanded (November 3). 
The British evacuate New York (November 25). 
The British evacuate Charleston (December 14). 
Washington resigns his command to Congress (De- 
cember 23). 

1784-1789 

1786. Shays' Rebellion occurs in Massachusetts. 

1787. The Constitution of the United States is adopted by 
the Convention (September 17). 

Congress passes the "Ordinance of 1787." 

The Federalists and Anti-Federalists, our first two 

political parties, are formed. 

1788. Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, 
publish the "Federalist" in defense of the Constitu- 
tion. 

1789. The Congress of the Confederation, having accepted 
the Constitution, decides that it should go into effect 
March 4, 1789. 



\ 



PERIOD OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE 
STATES TO THE CIVIL WAR 



CHAPTER XVI 

CONDITIONS OF THE NEW NATION 

321. Extent and Significance. The period of the develop- 
ment of the States to the Civil War extends from the adoption 
of the Constitution in 1789 to the breaking out of the Civil 
War in 1861. The principal events included in this period are 
the great accessions of territory to the original United States, 
the increase of the number of states from thirteen to thirty- 
four, and the rapid progress of the country in population, 
wealth, and industrial achievements. Having seen how the Con- 
stitution was framed and adopted, we are now to learn how the 
new government was put into operation under this Constitution. 

322. Area — Extent — Population. Before studying the next 
epoch of our history, let us dwell briefly on the general social 
conditions of the young nation about to begin its career under the 
new Constitution. We cannot expect to recount any imme- 
diate progress after the hardships and confusion of the war. 
The people stood still, as it were, in the face of the overwhelm- 
ing recollections of the past and the political disturbances of 
the present. This condition, however, was soon to give way 
to an outburst of great national activity. 

The United States in 1783 included an area of about eight 
hundred thousand square miles and was bounded on the north 
by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence ; on the east, by the 
Atlantic; and on the south and west, by Spanish territory. 
These boundaries were in dispute at points east and west of 
the Great Lakes. 

248 



I 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 249 

In accordance with the Constitution, which provides that the 
census be taken every ten years, the first enumeration was 
made in 1790 and showed a population of nearly four millions, 
about one-fifth of which were negroes, mostly slaves, and one- 
fiftieth Indians, Only five per cent of the people lived west of 
the Alleghanies. Virginia was the most populous state; Penn- 
sylvania ranked next; then followed in order North Carolina, 
Massachusetts, New York, Maryland, South Carolina, and Con- 
necticut. 

323. The West. Vermont was admitted as the fourteenth 
state in 1791, and Kentucky as the fifteenth, in 1792. The glow- 
ing accounts of Boone and other western pioneers attracted 




AN EMIGRANT WAGON 

many people to the beautiful and fertile region west of 
the mountains. The means of travel and communication were 
so slow, however, that Jefferson declared it would take a 
thousand years to fill up the region to the Mississippi 
River. 

There were three main routes of travel to the western set- 
iements : 
'1) the Ohio River was reached at Pittsburg by a route through 

Pennsylvania or by way of the Potomac and Mononga- 

hela rivers ; 



250 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(2) the Virginia valley settlers followed the Greenbrier River 

to the Great Kanawha, a branch of the Ohio; 

(3) the greatest number of the frontier settlers moved by way 

of the Cumberland Gap or Wilderness Road. 
Great numbers of pack-horses and emigrant wagons were 
following the three common routes across the mountains. Pitts- 
burg especially, felt the impetus of the western movement, for, 
from this point, the pioneers with their families and belong- 
ings, could easily float down the Ohio on flatboats and build 
homes in what is now the state of Ohio. Notwithstanding the 
western trend of emigration, the great mass of people still clung 
to the seaboard, and the centers of population were along river 
courses and around good harbors. 

324. Towns. There were no large cities in America at the 
close of the Revolution. Only five had a population exceed- 
ing ten thousand — Philadelphia, New York, Boston, Charleston, 
and Baltimore. The streets of most of the cities were nar- 
row, and poorly paved, if paved at all. There were no sewers 
and sanitation received but little attention. All kinds of diseases 
prevailed ; worst of all was the terrible yellow fever. Philadel- 
phia, however, had lighted and paved streets and a drainage 
system and was the finest city in the United States. New York, 
though not equal to Philadelphia in improvements, was a pleas- 
ant residence city. Boston, the second or third according to 
population, was a crowded but thriving commercial town. Bal- 
timore controlled the commerce of the Potomac and the Sus- 
quehanna Valley. Charleston, the typical southern city, con- 
trolled the rice trade, was the favorite residence center of the 
wealthy planters, and was celebrated for its gay social life. 

325. Commerce. Owing to the fact that the old Confedera- 
tion could not protect the commerce of the country, trade at 
this time was not very flourishing. But in spite of unfavor- 
able conditions, American navigators were familiar with 
all seas and sailed to the West Indies, Europe, Asia, and even 
China and the northwest coast of America. New England 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 



251 



ship-owners loaded their vessels with beef, pork, fish, peltries, 
timber, and pitch at the various colonial ports, with grain and 
flour from the Middle States, with hogsheads of tobacco from 
Maryland and Virginia, or with rice and indigo from Caro- 
lina and Georgia. They then sailed away to foreign lands and 
returned with cargoes of sundry articles as sugar, coffee, tea, 
salt, nails, and distilled spirits. The value of the imports was 
slightly less than that of the exports. 

326. Manufacturing. Manufacturing, except shipbuilding, 
was yet in its infancy. In shipbuilding New England ranked 
first and the South last. The manufacturing interests of New 




PLOWING IN EARLY DAYS 



England and Pennsylvania were, however, aided in their very 
beginning by the excellent facilities for this industry. Woolen 
cloth was the most important article of manufacture at this 
period. Some spinning mills were active in the New England 
States. There were a great many paper mills in Philadelphia 
and also iron works and glass factories. Saw and grist mills 
lined the banks of the swift -flowing streams. Blacksmiths' 
forges were erected along the roadside ; leather was tanned 
and dressed, and barrels were coopered and packed with fish. 
327. Agriculture. Agriculture was the chief industry, and 
probably nine-tenths of the people were engaged in farming. 



252 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

It received less attention in New England than any other sec- 
tion on account of the nature of the soil and climate. The 
farmer made his own wooden plow, which was drawn by horses 
or oxen; he manufactured his own wagon; dropped his seed 
by hand; cut his grain with a scythe and threshed it with a 
flail, or had his cattle or horses tramp it out for him. 

328. Travel and Communication. The means of travel and 
communication had changed but little since pre-Revolutionary 
times. Sailing vessels on the ocean, flatboats on the rivers, and 
the saddle-horse and stage coach for inland travel were still 
the chief means of transportation. More regular routes, how- 
ever, had been established between the larger cities. The time 
required to traverse the distance from Boston to New York and 
thence on to Philadelphia, was from eight to ten days. "Wes- 
tern farmers, finding trade slow and unprofitable in eastern 
markets, preferred to float their produce down the Ohio and 
the Mississippi to New Orleans. Here, however, the Spaniards 
charged a heavy duty. Not unfrequently Spanish officers 
seized both boat and cargo, and left the despoiled and angry 
owner to foot his long way home. When the irritated pioneers 
threatened to raise an army against the Spaniards, Spain, 
by treaty, granted the free use of the mouth of the Missis- 
sippi. 

329. Social Life. A great change in American customs and 
ways of living had come about. We have seen that the war 
drove from the country thousands of Tories who were among 
the wealthiest and best educated people. Hundreds of other 
families were entirely broken up or reduced to poverty. For- 
eign fashions and habits of living were introduced in the large 
towns and replaced the plain ways of colonial times. The 
dwellings of the wealthy, though they had spacious rooms 
and rich furnishings, still lacked most of our modern comforts. 
Among the aristocratic classes there was much display in dress ; 
and the styles of the English gentry were still in use. The 
men wore boots, knee-breeches, overcoats, and cloaks of costly 



DEVELOPMENT OP THE STATES 253 

material; lace ruffles were worn about the wrists; the silver 
snuff-box and the metal-headed cane were indispensable com- 
panions. Wigs were going out of style. The women were at- 
tired in dresses of gay colored silks and velvets, over which 
were worn dainty white aprons, while quaint white cambric 
caps adorned their heads. The people living in the villages 
or engaged in farming had not, however, changed their simple 
manners. They still lived in their humble and rudely fur- 
nished log houses. They industriously raised their food on their 
own farms and wore homespun clothing. The spinning wheel 
was found in every home. Mrs. "Washington is said to have 
kept sixteen spinning wheels running. Fireplaces were used 
in the majority of homes, but the stove invented by Franklin 
was fast coming into use. The houses were lighted by means 
of tallow candles, and a whale-oil lamp was a rare luxury. 

330. Education. The cause of education had suffered greatly 
during the war. Schools were neglected. Many a student 
had become a soldier instead of a scholar. The country was 
impoverished and in consequence, school houses were sparingly 
furnished, and schoolbooks were few. Still in those times of 
rigorous discipline and persistent teaching of the "Three R's" 
there was much hard studying. On the whole, however, the 
literary talent of the United States had been improved by the 
Eevolution. The eloquent speeches and learned writings of 
the great political leaders during the long years of controv- 
ersy with England and the agitation over the Constitution, 
had stirred the people's thoughts and feelings and had called 
for hard thinking on many questions. One of the hopeful 
signs of the future of parochial and government schools was 
the article in the Constitution which granted freedom of con- 
science, as also the provision made by the old Congress in the 
Ordinance of 1787, that the schools of the Northwest should 
be encouraged. Noah Webster, a young schoolmaster, had 
just arranged a speller and was at work upon a dictionary 
(1783). 



254 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



331. Religion. We have seen that the Revolution swept 
away many of the old religious prejudices. The majority of 
the people were in favor of religious freedom and the Consti- 
tution took away from Congress the power to establish any 
form of religion or to hinder freedom of worship. Still in 
some of the original states Catholicity for many years was 
obliged to struggle against bigotry. This, however, was gradu- 
ally dying out. 

After the "Peace of Paris," in 1783, Pope Pius VI erected 
the Episcopal See of Baltimore and consecrated as first Bishop 

of the United States, the learned and 
patriotic John Carroll, who had for 
some years administered the affairs of 
the American Church with the rank 
of Prefect Apostolic. His diocese em- 
braced the whole United States; his 
flock, in the charge of some forty zeal- 
ous pioneer priests, numbered about 
fifty thousand. It is interesting for 
Catholics to note the fact that, simul- 
taneously with the election of Presi- 
dent Washington as the civil executive 
of the young nation, Divine Provi- 
dence provided the infant American 
church with a spiritual executive in the person of the illus- 
trious Right Reverend John Carroll. Franklin, Washington, 
and other leading builders of the Republic, highly esteemed 
Bishop Carroll for his saintly life and noble patriotism. The 
Holy Father, through Franklin, inquired of Congress in what 
manner the arrangement of a bishop for the United States 
could be made without interfering with the laws of the nation. 
In answer. Congress assured him that the United States had no 
jurisdiction over matters purely spiritual. 

No sooner had the Abnaki Indians of Maine, the descendants 
of Father Rasle's loyal flock, heard that the Holy Father had 




BISHOP CARROLL 



From the Portrait by Gilbert 
Stuart in Georgetown University 



DEVELOPMENT OF THE STATES 255 

appointed a Bishop over the American Church, than they sent 
a delegation to ask the revered prelate for a priest. Bishop 
Carroll received them kindly, embraced Father Rasle's cruci-. 
fix, which they carried with them, and promised to give them 
the desired "black gown." These Abnaki Indians, true to the 
faith to this day, have never been without a missionary since 
that time. 

As the West had been first explored by the French, Catho- 
licity had early gained a foothold there ; and the French posts 
in the Mississippi valley were regularly attended by chaplains. 
After the Jesuits withdrew, however, the Rev. Father Gibault, 
vicar-general of that region under the Bishop of Quebec, was 
for many years the only priest in the territory of what is now 
Indiana and Illinois. The cross had also been planted on the 
Pacific coast. Shortly before the Declaration of Independence, 
the Spanish Franciscans, under Father Serra, founded the mis- 
sion which afterwards became the city of San Francisco. 

332. Literature, Art, and Science. American literature was 
still in its infancy, even though America had produced some 
noted writers. She had eminent scientists in Franklin and 
Benjamin Thompson; distinguished painters in West, Copley, 
and Stuart, and great statesmen and political writers in Dick- 
inson, Jefferson, Hamilton, and Madison ; still, of these, Frank- 
lin was the only one worthy of more than national fame. News- 
papers had increased in numbers, but the people still had to 
depend largely upon letters for their news. The first Catholic 
work published in the United States was written by Father 
John Carroll. It was a worthy reply to an attack of an ex- 
Jesuit on the Catholic Church. 

The godless writings of Godwin, Rousseau, Voltaire, and 
similar European authors had spread in the United States dur- 
ing the Revolution. Among infidel writers of our country may 
be mentioned Ethan Allen and Thomas Paine. 

333. Anti-Slavery Spirit. At the close of the Revolution, 
slaverj^ existed in nearly all the States. But many people now 



256 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

began to think that if it was wrong for Englishmen to tax 
their colonies, it could hardly be right for Americans to buy 
and sell African strangers. They furthermore declared that 
the principles of Christianity and the Declaration of Independ- 
ence endowed all men with equal rights to "life, liberty, and 
the pursuit of happiness." Emancipation acts which were 
eventually passed in many of the states abolished slavery north 
of Mason and Dixon's line. In the South, however, where 
slave labor was more profitable on the great plantations than 
on the small farms of the North, slavery had taken a firmer 
foothold. Even in the South, many people thought slavery 
injurious, and voted for the Ordinance of 1787, which forbade it. 




WASHINGTON'S FAREWELL TO HIS MOTHER 



CHAPTER XVII 

GEOEGE WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTEATION 
UNANIMOUS CHOICE — 1789-1797 

334. The First Presidential Election. In the early part of 
1789, each state chose as many electors, or delegates, to vote 
for President and Vice-president as it had Senators and Rep- 
resentatives in Congress. Next the electors of each state voted 
for two men, one for the presidency, the other for the vice- 
presidency. According to the Constitution, the man receiving 
the majority of votes from the electors was to become the 
President, and the one receiving the next largest number, 
Vice-president. The votes cast were kept until counted by 
the new Congress. 

On the fourth of March the new government was duly ush- 
ered in amid the ringing of bells, and the booming of cannon 
from the New York batteries. But the President could not 
be inaugurated on that date ; for, owing to the slow means of 
travel and communication, the majority, or quorum of each 
house of Congress had not reached New York. Finally, by 
April 6, Congress was organized. The two houses assembled 
in joint session and chose Frederick A. Muhlenberg as Chairman. 
The count of the votes cast by the presidential electors showed 
that George Washington was unanimously chosen as President, 
and that John Adams had received the next highest number 
of votes, which made him Vice-president. 

Washington, upon receiving notice of his election, reluctant- 
ly left the retirement of his home at Mount Vernon, bade a 
hurried adieu to his aged mother at Alexandria, and hastened 
to New York to assume the duties of his new office. His way 
thither was one triumphal progress. Old and young thronged 
the highways to welcome and bless him. At Trenton, the scene 
of his victory in the darkest hour of the war, he passed un- 

257 



258 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



der a triumphal arch, bearing these words: "The Defender 
of the Mothers will be the Protector of the Daughters," Here 
children came to meet him and to strew flowers at his feet. 
He took the oath of office, April 30, 1789, on the balcony of 
Federal Hall, New York City, in the presence of an immense 
throng of people. When the ceremony was over. Chancellor 

Livingston, who had admin- 
istered the oath of office, 
called out: "Long live 
Washington — President of 
the United States!" The 
cry was caught up and pro- 
longed by the enthusiastic 
people, while the artillery 
boomed and the city bells 
rang forth their joyous peals. 
Washington then read his 
inaugural address in the 
Senate chamber in the pres- 
ence of the assembled Con- 
gress. In it he made refer- 
ence to a Supreme Being as 
the Ruler of the Universe, 
and controller of human ac- 
tions and human destiny, 
whether individual or national. At the conclusion of the 
address, the assembly went to one of the city churches, where 
prayers were offered. 

335. Our First Congress — Important Measures. When our 
first Congress opened its session, Vice-president Adams, who 
had entered upon his office April 21, 1789, presided over the 
Senate, and Frederick A. Muhlenberg of Pennsylvania was 
Speaker of the House of Representatives. Never was the busi- 
ness of a legislative body more important and more pressing 
than that of our first Congress. 




FEDERAL HALL 



GEORGE Washington's administration 259 

Prominent measures which demanded immediate attention 
were: 

(a) the enactment of revenue taxes, or a tariff, to pay the pub- 

lic debt ; 

(b) the creation of administrative, or executive departments; 

(c) the establishment of a Supreme Court, and Circuit and 

District Courts, or a judicial system; 

(d) the fixing of the salaries of the President and Congress- 

men; 

(e) the making of amendments to the Constitution (Bill of 

Rights) ; and 
(/) the location of the nation's capital. 

336. Six Administrative Departments. Washington, with the 
consent of the Senate, appointed six able men to preside over 
the five administrative departments created by Congress, and 
over the Supreme Court : 

(1) Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, the famous author of the 

Declaration of Independence, was appointed Secretary 
of State; his chief duty was to attend to the foreign 
affairs of the government, but at first some home af- 
fairs also were under his control. 

(2) Alexander Hamilton of New York, probably the most bril- 

liant statesman of our history, was appointed Secretary 
of the Treasury; his duty was to attend to the financial 
aft'airs of the country. 

(3) Henry Knox of Massachusetts, distinguished as a soldier 

during the Revolution, was appointed Secretary of War ; 
his duty was to attend to the affairs of the army and 
navy. 

(4) Edmund Randolph of Virginia, famous in the Constitu- 

tional Convention, was appointed Attorney-General ; his 
duty was to advise the government in legal matters. 

(5) Samuel Osgood, a general during the Revolution, was ap- 

pointed Postmaster-General; his duty was to manage 



260 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the affairs of the post-office system established by the 
Continental Congress (1775). 
(6) John Jay of New York, noted for his sterling character 
and strong convictions, was appointed Chief Justice of 
the Supreme Court ; his duty, in common with five as- 
sociate justices, was to decide questions of law and jus- 
tice brought before the Court. 
• Though the officers presiding over the respective departments 
mentioned above were appointed by the President with the con- 
sent of the Senate, they were removable by him without the action 
of the Senate. 

337. The President's Cabinet. Although not provided for 
by the Constitution, the first Congress passed an act authoriz- 
ing the President to select a body of advisers to be called the 
Cabinet. While the President is not obliged in the smallest 
degree to follow the advice of the Cabinet members, or even 
to ask it, their views have usually great weight with him. The 
illustrious officers of the first four administrative departments 
■ — Jefferson, Hamilton, Knox, and Randolph — composed Wash- 
ington's Cabinet or advisory body. Taken as a whole, this 
Cabinet has probably never been excelled in ability. The mem- 
bers were well known on both sides of the Atlantic, and pos- 
sessed the confidence of the people. Though they did not all 
agree with Washington on all political matters, each one 
revered him, and, like him, was ready to do what was in his 
power to promote the welfare and prosperity of the country. 

The government was now organized. Congress, the law-mak- 
ing department, enacted the laws; the President at the head 
of the executive department, enforced the laws; and the Chief 
Justice, with his associates, constituting the judicial depart- 
ment, interpreted the laws when their meaning was disputed. 

338. Hamilton's Financial Plan. The money question was 
evidently the most pressing. Hamilton's report showed that 
the national indebtedness — foreign and domestic — amounted 
to the enormous sum of about fifty-five million dollars. Ameri- 



CEORGE Washington's administration 261 

can credit was dead ; but the young, ingenious Secretary of 
tlie Treasury worked out a plan for a general financial system, 
which tended to revive credit and strengthen the authority 
of the Union. He proposed : 

(a) that the government levy taxes for the two-fold purpose 
of paying its running expenses and debts, and of pro- 
tecting American industries ; 
(&) that an internal, or direct tax be imposed on alcoholic 

liquors ; 
(c) that the government pay in full both its foreign and do- 
mestic debts; 
{d) that it assume and pay the debts of the separate states; 
(e) that it establish a great national bank. 

Hamilton, although only thirty-two years old, had acquired 
a notable reputation as a writer on problems of government 
and as a lawyer. As a financier he probably has had no equal 
in America. Daniel "Webster afterwards said of him: "He 
touched the dead corpse of the public credit and it sprang to 
its feet." 

Hamilton, knowing the people's aversion to a direct tax sug- 
gested the tariff revenue. This provided for the taxation of 
imported goods, but as the impost was to be included in the 
selling price of the articles, the buyers would not realize that 
they were paying a direct tax. The money thus obtained was 
to be used to meet the expenses of the government. 

As the manufacturing states wanted protection for their indus- 
tries, a protective revenue tariff act was introduced by Madison 
into the House of Representatives and signed by Washington 
after his inauguration (July 4, 1789). The purpose of this 
tariff M'as to obtain revenue and to protect native industries. 
It was adjusted in such a way as to admit free the products 
the United States did not produce and to tax those of other 
nations that the country did produce. The funds thus obtained 
proved insufficient, and the tariff was twice slightly increased 
at Hamilton's suggestion. The Tonnage Act, intended for the 



262 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

encouragement and protection of American shipping, provided 
that goods imported in foreign vessels be taxed more heavily 
than those imported in American ships. 

In a short time these revenue acts yielded an annual income 
of about three and a half million dollars. Thus the govern- 
ment obtained money enough to pay its running expenses and 
the interest on its debts. 

Departing from his policy of refraining from irritating the 
people by direct taxes, Hamilton suggested a small tax on al- 
coholic liquors. Congress imposed the tax. The people of the 
Alleghany region and western Pennsylvania, who carried their 
grain to the market in the shape of whiskey, could not see why 
they should be taxed more than the people east of the moun- 
tains, who carried their grain to the market simply as grain; 
hence they were inclined to regard the tax in the same light 
as the stamp duties before the Revolution. An insurrection, 
known as the Whiskey Rebellion, followed. As the governor 
of Pennsylvania was unable to suppress it, Washington called 
for fifteen thousand troops (1794). Their appearance sufficed 
to subdue the rebellion. This event proved that the United 
States had the power to impose a direct tax upon its own 
citizens as well as upon foreign goods — a long stride forward; 
the colonies had resisted taxation by England, and now the 
states acknowledged the right of taxation by a central power, 
and understood that the government was strong enough to 
enforce its laws in an unruly state. 

There was no opposition to Hamilton's plan of paying for- 
eign debts, but a heated debate took place in Congress as to 
the payment of the domestic debt. Finally, Hamilton's plan 
triumphed, and a bill providing for the payment of both for- 
eign and domestic debts was passed. As a result paper cur- 
rency, certificates, or promises of the government, instantly 
began to rise in value, and in December, 1791, were quoted 
at par (equal to face value). The credit of the United States 
was re-established. 



GEORGE WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 



263 



The fourth part of Hamilton's scheme, that the national 
government assume the unpaid debts of the states incurred 
in support of the Revolution, met with strong opposition, es- 
pecially from states like Virginia, which had cancelled the 
greater part of their own debt or perhaps had raised money 
for war by levying taxes instead of borrowing it. The measure 
was therefore defeated for the time. The undaunted Hamil- 
ton saw, however, an opportunity to save his plan in the dis- 
pute over the permanent location of the national capital. 




THE TREASURY DEPARTMENT TODAY 



While both the North and the South wanted the capital, the 
choice had narrowed to two eastern locations — one on the 
Delaware (North), the other on the Potomac (South). 

Hamilton agreed that he would favor the location of the 
capital on the Potomac River in case Jefferson would favor his 
plan for the assuming of the state debts. A compromise was 
therefore made. Hamilton secured enough northern votes for 
the Potomac site, while Jefferson got a sufficient number of 
Virginians to carry the assumption of the state debts ($21,500,- 
000). Philadelphia was to remain the capital for ten years, 
when the seat of government was to be removed to some spot 
on the Potomac selected by Washington; the state debts were 
also to be taken up in due time. It was largely owing to the 



264 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

revolt of the Pennsylvania troops during the war that the 
framers of the Constitution inserted a provision which gave 
the federal government complete control over a district ten 
miles square, within which a national capitol and other public 
buildings might be erected. The capitol was built on that 
part of the land which had been transferred to the govern- 
ment by Daniel Carroll. 

Having re-organized the nation 's finance, Hamilton now pro- 
posed the establishment of a national bank which the govern- 
ment should partly direct and in which it should hold shares, 
on the principles: 

(a) that such bank would become the means of giving a safe 
and uniform currency- to the country through the issue 
of bank notes ; 
(&) that the government would be enabled to borrow money 

and transact its financial affairs with less difficulty; 
(c) that the men who might become stockholders would be- 
come interested in the government. 
After strenuous opposition, the bill passed both houses and 
was signed by the President. The bank's capital was soon 
subscribed and this institution immediately entered upon a 
prosperous and useful career. It was chartered for twenty 
years and handled nearly all the government money. As the 
Constitution forbade the states to coin money, Congress passed 
an act for the establishment of a United States mint at Phila- 
delphia. To this mint anyone might take gold or silver and 
have it made into coins free of charge. The ratio of fifteen to 
one was adopted; that is, the weight of pure silver in a silver 
dollar was fifteen times as much as that of pure gold in a 
gold dollar. With the opening of the mint began a;lso our 
simple and convenient decimal system of coinage — "ten cents 
make a dime, ten dimes a dollar." 

339. The Bank Bill and the Cabinet — Political Parties. Wash- 
ington, before signing the bill providing for a United States 
bank, referred it to the members of his Cabinet and asked 



GEORGE Washington's administration 265 

their written opinions on its constitutionality. The replies of 
Hamilton and Jefferson are worthy of note : 
(a) Jefferson held that the Constitution made no provision for 
the establishment of such a bank and that hence Con- 
gress did not have the power to establish it. He 
based his opinion on the literal interpretation of the 
Constitution ; 
(&) Hamilton argued that the creation of a bank was consti- 
tutional, since it was related to the power of collecting 
taxes and borrowing money. He based his argument 
on a clause of the Constitution which gives Congress the 
right "to make all laws which shall be necessary and 
proper for carrying into execution . . . the powers 
vested by this Constitution in the government of the 
United States." (Article I, Sec. 8, Clause 18.) 
Subsequently, the national bank act gave rise to two political 
parties : 

(a) the Hamiltonians, favoring a loose construction of the 
Constitution for the sake of strengthening the federal 
government, were properly called Federalists; they re- 
sided chiefly in the commercial states ; 
(&) the Jeff'ersonians, favoring a strict construction of the 
Constitution for the sake of making the states, rather 
than the federal government, the stronger power, were 
called Republicans, a name which implied that they were 
the only true friends of the republican form of govern- 
ment. The Republicans were most numerous in the ag- 
ricultural states. 
The Federalists were strongest in the North and held that 
the government should be for the most part in the hands of 
the so-called upper classes; that is, in the hands of the edu- 
cated, and of the wealthy merchants and capitalists. The Re- 
publicans were strongest in the South, and they held that 
the masses of the people should control governmental affairs. 
They were called Democrats by the Hamiltonians, and hence 



266 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

gradually became known as Democratic-Republicans. Hamil- 
ton had no faith in the ability of the masses of the people to 
govern, whereas Jefferson had confidence in the common peo- 
ple and in their ability for self-government. He held that 
if the affairs of the government should go wrong, ''the good 
sense of the people would be the best army." To him, there 
fore, we are greatly indebted for the bringing into existence 
of a party whose leading policy was faith in the people. 

340, Re-election of Washington and Adams. The two secre- 
taries, Hamilton and Jeft'erson, naturally opposed each other 
in the Cabinet, as Jefferson said, ''like two cocks in a pit." 
The controversy passed through the newspapers. Washington, 
who had hard work in forcing them to work together, had be- 
come weary of the attacks on his administration and would 
gladly have retired to Mount Vernon at the end of his first 
term, but both Jeft'erson and Hamilton, voicing the sentiments 
of the two parties which they represented, urged him to stand 
for a second election. Yielding his own wishes to those of 
the people, he was for a second time elected by the unanimous 
vote of the electoral college. John Adams, the Federalist can- 
didate, was also re-elected Vice-president. 

341. Westward Movement. Shortly after the passage of the 
Ordinance of 1787, Congress sold five million acres of north- 
western lands to individuals and companies. While the coun- 
try was discussing Hamilton's financial measures, thousands 
of people from the eastern states were emigrating to the North- 
west Territory, of which General St. Clair became the first 
governor. Before long the cities of Marietta (1788) and Cin- 
cinnati (1790) were founded on the Ohio, and the territory 
of Ohio was admitted (1802) into the Union as the seventeenth 

■state — the first of the magnificent group of states formed from 
the Northwest Territory. 

But these settlements were not made without great loss of 
life. The Indians bitterly resented the invasion of their hunt- 
ing grounds, and encouraged by the British, who still held 



GEORGE WASHINGTON S ADMINISTRATION 



267 



Detroit, they resolved to drive out or kill the settlers. After 
four years of warfare, the savages under their chief, Little 
Turtle, were defeated in a final battle near Vincennes (1794) 
by "Mad Anthony" Wayne the hero of Stony Point. He so 
laid waste their country that they were glad to make a treaty 
of peace and give up most of the Ohio country to the whites. 
For fifteen years after this treaty, peace reigned and settlers 
continued crowding into the Northwest Territory. 




CINCINNATI IN 1819 

342. War in France — The United States Remains Neutral. 

During most of Wasliington's administration a terrible revo- 
lution was going on in France. The people overthrew the mon- 
archy (1792), beheaded the king, Louis XVI, and the queen, 
Marie Antoinette, abolished all titles, and set up a republic. 
France declared war against England and sent "Citizen" Genet 
as minister to America to get help. A difficult problem now 
faced Washington and his cabinet, for they knew that to aid 
France meant war with England. Had not France been the 
first and warmest friend of American freedom ? Was not Eng- 



268 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

land America's old enemy? These were questions of great 
importance, made all the more so by the fact that this was the 
first administration, and succeeding ones would very likely 
follow its example. The Cabinet wisely decided to maintain 
neutrality (April 22, 1793). This was the beginning of our 
wise policy of not interfering in the affairs of European nations. 

343. Genet's Indiscretion. This attitude of the United States 
was anything but what France had expected. Genet landed at 
Charleston, South Carolina, and thinking the United States in 
sympathy with his country, began to enlist men, to fit out ships 
for the French service, and to do other unlawful acts. Even 
after being requested by Secretary Jefferson to stop such pro- 
ceedings, he continued to fit out vessels as privateers to prey on 
English commerce, and committed other violations of neu- 
trality. He went so far as to try to stir up the people against 
Washington and the government. The people, however, re- 
sented such an insult to the government, and Washington 
demanded the recall of Genet. Genet was recalled, but rather 
than run the risk of returning to France, preferred to remain 
in the state of New York, where he engaged in farming until 
his death (1834). 

The Democratic-Republicans, though not permitted to help 
France, showed their sympathy with that country; they even 
wore French colors and called each other "citizen" or "citi- 
zeness," instead of "mister" or "your honor," in imitation 
of the French Revolutionists who had abolished all titles. 
French dress, customs, and manners came into use, and French 
victories were even made the occasion of civic celebrations. 

Owing to the closing of the mouth of the Mississippi by 
Spain and the seeming indifference of the United States gov- 
ernment concerning this grievance, the people of the West had 
grown somewhat discontented. Genet, after the proclamation 
of neutrality, had received secret orders from the French gov- 
ernment to take advantage of this condition of affairs and to 
enlist men to conquer Louisiana, Florida, and Canada for 



GEORGE Washington's administration 269 

France. Plans to this effect had already been set on foot at 
Charleston and Philadelphia when the minister was recalled. 

344. Political Parties. So far the political parties had been 
composed of little more than personal followings. The mighty 
movements in Europe now drew the dividing lines more clearly : 
(a) the Federalists, or ''Loose Constructionists" strongly op- 
posed the giving of any aid to France. They leaned 
toward England because they wished English trade, and 
because they feared the spread of anarchical principles 
in America; 

(h) the Democratic-Republicans, or "Strict Constructionists," 
were inclined to aid France by war or by indirect help — ■ 
such as we had received at the beginning of the Revolu- 
tionary War. 

345. Trouble with England. Our relations with England 
Vv^ere no better than those with France. 

(a) England claimed the right to seize all kinds of provisions 
carried to French ports in our ships on the doubtful 
claim that "provisions are contraband of war." 

(&) England impressed our seamen. Her sailors, abandoning 
their country's navy, often obtained employment on 
American vessels, and refused to return when called 
upon to fight in the cause of their own country. Hence, 
Great Britain arrogantly stopped American ships to 
search them for seamen of British birth, in order to im- 
press them in her navy. Often naturalized Americans, 
and even sailors born in the United States, were seized. 

(c) England still refused to give up the western posts and 
encouraged the Indians to make war upon our settlers 
in the West. 

346. The Embargo — Jay's Treaty. Public feeling rose in this 
country until a temporary embargo (1794) forbade vessels to 
depart from American ports. The clamor for war became loud. 
Washington tried to avert it and appointed John Jay, then 
Chief Justice of the United States, as special envoy to England 



270 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




ELI WHITNEY'S COTTON GIN 



to make a last effort to adjust matters. After four months of 
negotiations, a treaty was drawn up which was finally ratified 
by Congress with the exact number of votes necessary to make 
the required two-thirds, though not without long and fierce 
debates. 

Washington signed the bill merely because it was a choice 
between the treaty and a war. The terms of the treaty 

were doubtless the best that 
could be secured at that time. 
Certain war, which would 
have crippled the nation, was 
averted. Once in force, the 
treaty Avas found moderately 
favorable to American in- 
terests. Our commerce in- 
creased and the capture of 
vessels at sea was fewer. 

347. Treaties with Spain and Algiers. Thomas Pinckney 
negotiated our first treaty with Spain (1795) by which that 
power permitted for ten years the use of New Orleans as a 
"place of deposit" for the free storage of goods to be trans- 
shipped, and fixed the thirty-first degree of latitude as the 
boundary of Florida. 

A treaty was also made with the pirate government of Algiers 
(1795) by which the American seamen who were held as cap- 
tives were ransomed, and American shipping on the ocean and 
on the ]\Iediterranean was to be left unmolested. 

348. The Spinning Mill— The Cotton Gin. Samuel Slater had, 
as a boy, spent seven years in the cotton mills of England. On 
coming to the United States he constructed from memory the 
necessary machinery and set up (1790) a cotton spinning mill 
at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. 

Cotton thus far had been grown in small quantities only, 
owing to the difficulty of separating the seed from the fiber, 
which had to be done by hand. In 1793, however, Eli "Whitney, 



GEORGE Washington's administration 271 

a Connecticut schoolmaster then residing in Georgia, invented 
a contrivance by which the cotton fiber was drawn by saw 
teeth through openings, too small to admit the passage of the 
seed. 

By this invention, called the cotton gin, the working capacity 
of one slave in cleaning cotton was multiplied about three 
hundred-fold. 

The invention of the cotton gin 
(a) stimulated the production of cotton and greatly increased 

the wealth of the country; 
(&) increased our exports enormously and eventually revolu- 
tionized the commerce of the world ; 

(c) encouraged the building of a great number of cotton mills 

in New England ; 

(d) fixed slavery on the nation — a great evil which soon di- 

vided the country into two hostile sections and finally 

brought about the Civil War, the most terrible conflict 

in the history of the United States. 

The manufacture of cotton goods in the United States had 

made but slight progress until Francis Lowell of Boston, who 

had visited England and there studied the machinery and 

methods of the cotton manufacturers, built a small factory near 

Boston, in which he began both the spinning and weaving of 

cotton (1813). From this time on factories multiplied and the 

industry grew very rapidly, 

349. Catholic Education — New Laborers in the Vineyard. 
Bishop Carroll, who was greatly interested in Catholic educa- 
tion, founded Georgetown College (1787), with the Jesuits in 
charge. He also organized a theological seminary in Baltimore 
and placed it in care of Sulpicians from Paris. Carmelite nuns 
(1790) established themselves at Port Tobacco, Maryland, and 
later at Baltimore, where they opened a school. 

To escape the horrors of the revolution raging in France, 
twenty-three French priests sought refuge in the United States 
(1791-1799). Bishop Carroll gladly welcomed them and they 



272 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



were soon zealously engaged in mission work in Kentucky and 
elsewhere. Six of these priests later became bishops. The 
Catholic Church in the United States is deeply indebted to the 
zeal of these exiled French priests for their unwearied efforts 
in the interests of religion. The first priest ordained in the 
United States was Rev. Stephen Badin, another French exile. 
He received holy orders in Baltimore and (1793) became a 
missionary in the West. The second priest ordained in the 
United States (1795) was the illustrious Russian Prince, Deme- 




GEOUGETOWX UXIVEUtilTY 



trius Gallitzin, fittingly termed the "Apostle of the Allegha- 
nies." He sacrificed a distinguished position and a large 
fortune to become a missionary in western Pennsylvania. 
Father Gallitzin founded the Catholic colony at Loretto, dis- 
tributed lands to the settlers, and spent thousands of dollars 
in charitable enterprises. 

350. Other Events. Early in the session of the first Congress, 
twelve amendments to the Constitution were adopted by Con- 



GEORGE Washington's administration 273 

gress. Ten of these were ratified and added to the Constitution 
(1791). These amendments were appropriately termed the 
"Bill of Rights." Among other things they prohibited Con- 
gress from interfering with freedom of religious worship, of 
speech, and of the press. 

Washington again, as during the war, did not desire any 
pay for his services. Congress decided, however, that the sal- 
ary of the President should be twenty-five thousand dollars a 
year. Six dollars a day were allowed to a Congressman. 

Captain Gray of Boston sailed (1790) around Cape Horn, 
thence up the Pacific along the Oregon coast and discovered 
the mouth of a great river which he entered and named the 
Columbia in honor of his ship. He then crossed the Pacific to 
China and from there he proceeded around the Cape of Good 
Hope and across the Atlantic to Boston. The American flag 
for the first time had been carried around the world. 

Three states were admitted into the Union : Vermont, orig- 
inally claimed by both New York and New Hampshire, en- 
tered (1791) as the fourteenth state, without slavery; Ken- 
tucky came in (1792) as the fifteenth state, with slavery; Ten- 
nessee was admitted (1796), with the consent of North Carolina, 
as the sixteenth state, with slavery. 

The first fugitive slave law enacted by Congress (1793) gave 
the owner of a fugitive slave the right to seize him in whatever 
part of the United States he might be found. Upon proof 
that the person was a fugitive slave, he was to be returned to 
the owner. Any one hindering his return was to be fined five 
hundred dollars. 

Washington, who had been twice unanimously chosen Presi- 
dent, declined to be a candidate for re-election. He announced 
his determination in an afi:'ecting farewell address, published in 
a Philadelphia paper. His eight years of administration had 
been, if possible, even a greater service to his country than 
his eight years' command of its armies. He now retired to 
spend the evening of his life at his Mount Vernon home on the 



274 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Potomac. Throughout the country he was hailed by the grate- 
ful and affectionate people, not as "President of the United 
States," but as "Father of his Country." 

His farewell address, so full of patriotic wisdom, has become 
one of the political classics of the world. In it Washington 
pleaded for national unity, obedience to law, religion, and 
morality, warned the country against the danger of party 
spirit, and bade it observe good faith and justice toward all 
nations. "Of all the dispositions and habits," said he, "which 
lead to political prosperity, religion and morality are indispens- 
able supports," 




WASHINGTON'S COAT OF ARMS 



CHAPTER XVIII 

JOHN ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION 
FEDERALIST— 1797-lSOl 

351. Adams and Jefferson Are Elected. After Washington 
had made his farewell address, some months before the expira- 
tion of his second term of office, the selection of a successor 
became a party question. Each party chose a candidate— the 
Federalists, John Adams of Massachusetts — the Democratic- 
Republicans, Thomas Jefferson of Virginia. After an active 
campaign the contest resulted in the election of Adams to the 
presidency, while Jefferson became Vice-president. The incon- 
venience of party difference between the President and Vice- 
president led, a few years later, to a change in the mode of 
election — a distinct ballot being taken for the Vice-president, 
who has ever since been of the same party with his chief. 

Adams (1735-1826) became President by a vote of seventy- 
one and Jefferson Vice-president by a vote of sixty-eight— a 
dift'erence of three electoral votes. Adams made the mistake 
of retaining Washington's cabinet, which, under the control of 
Hamilton (Adams's enemy) was not loyal to him. Adding to 
this circumstance the fact that Adams and Jefferson were 
leaders of opposite parties, we can readily realize that the 
administration began with divided councils and with jealousy 
in the President's official household. As a result the country 
was disturbed by a violent conflict of opinions. 

352. New Trouble with France. Our trouble with France 
was not at an end with the recall of Genet during Washington's 
administration. The Jay treaty was considered by France as 
an insult, partly because it was favorable to her rival, partly 

275 



276 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

because it removed the prospect of war between England and 
the United States. 

James Monroe had been appointed by Washington as min- 
ister to France (1794). Being violently opposed to Great Brit- 
ain and greatly in sympathy with France he acted very indis- 
creetly, and was censured by Randolph, the Secretary of State, 
and finally recalled by Washington. Charles C. Pinckney was 
then appointed as his successor. This recall gave great offense 
to France. 

French cruisers now began openly to attack our merchant 
vessels. The French minister to our country was recalled, while 
our minister to France, Charles C. Pinckney, was not only re- 
fused a hearing, but even ordered to leave the country. Pinck- 
ney immediately went to Holland to await further instructions. 
353. The X, Y, Z Mission. France had now set up a Rev- 
olutionary government, vested in five persons, called a Directory. 
Adams, indignant at the treatment which our minister had 
received, boldly denounced the conduct of France. He called 
an extra session of Congress and, considering the country too 
weak for war, finally sent John Marshall and Elbridge Gerry 
to join Pinckney in a final attempt to settle matters peaceably. 
These envoys, on reaching Paris, were denied an official inter- 
view, but three persons acting as agents visited them privately 
and declared that the American envoys could be received only 
under three conditions: The United States 
(a) should first apologize for Adams's denunciation of the con- 
duct of France; 
(&) should pay each Director the sum of fifty thousand dollars; 

and 
(c) should pay tribute under the name of a loan to the French 
government. 
The envoys refused to give any money to the Directors and 
treated the proposition to purchase a treaty by bribery with 
utter contempt. Pinckney exclaimed : ' ' Millions for defense ; 
not a cent for tribute. ' ' The. results were made known in a 



JOHN ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 277 

dispatch to the President. When Adams made his report to 
Congress he called the three agents, Mr. X, Mr. Y, and Mr. Z; 
hence the incident became known as the "X, Y, Z affair." 
When the particulars of this incident became public through the 
newspapers, a wild cry of indignation against France went up 
from both the Federalists and the Republicans throughout the 
country. ' ' Millions for defense ; not a cent for tribute, " " War 
with France ! ' ' resounded on every side, while the stirring 
words of "Hail, Columbia," composed by Joseph Hopkinson, 
gave fitting expression to the patriotic spirit of the people. 

354. On the Verge of War with France. President Adams 
considering negotiations with France at an end, declared: "I 
will never send another minister to France without the assur- 
ance that he will be received, respected, and honored as the 
representative of a great, free, and powerful nation." War 
measures were now quickly passed in both Houses of Congress. 
A provisional army was raised and Washington was appointed 
commander-in-chief of the American forces. New vessels were 
added to the navy and the Navy Department was organized. 
Naval hostilities between the two nations were actually begun. 
The American Constellation, under Captain Truxtun, captured 
the French frigate Insurgent after a hard fight. So vigorous a 
warfare did our little navy wage, that the French Directory at 
once declared its willingness to receive an envoy from the 
United States. Adams, anxious to avoid war, sent a commis- 
sion, which concluded a treaty (1800) with Napoleon, who had 
now^ attained power in France. Adams consulted neither his 
Cabinet nor the leaders of his party when sending the envoys 
to France. Both took great offense at the action of the Presi- 
dent, and a split in the Federalist party was the result. This 
action was one of the causes of Adam's failure of re-election, 
but it effected a peace with France which has not been broken 
for a century. Adams later said, regarding this treaty, that he 
desired no other epitaph than: "Here lies John Adams, who 
took upon himself the responsibility of peace with France." 



278 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

355. Three Acts Aimed at Foreigners. While foreign affairs 
were demanding attention, party spirit continued to grow more 
bitter. The newspapers showed an extraordinary spirit of vio- 
lence in their denunciations of the President and the govern- 
ment. Many of the journalists at that time were foreigners. 
To the excited imagination of the Federalists, who were repre- 
sented by a majority in both Houses of Congress, these men 
leagued with France in an attempt to destroy the liberties of the 
country. To get rid of the most violent of these writers and at 
the same time to punish American-born editors who too freely 
criticized the administration. Congress passed three laws : 

(a) the Naturalization Act, which increased the time of resi- 
dence necessary to become a citizen from five to four- 
teen years ; 
(5) the Alien Act, which authorized the President to expel 
from the United States, without a trial of any sort, all 
aliens whom he should deem dangerous to the peace and 
safety of the country ; 
(c) the Sedition Act, which provided for the punishment by 
fine and imprisonment of any person who, by writing or 
speaking, should bring the government into disrepute. 
Adams never made use of the Alien Law, which was in force 
only two years. But the Sedition Law, in use less than three 
years, was enforced in several cases, and editors were fined and 
sometimes imprisoned: 

The Alien and Sedition Acts were merely party acts passed 
for party purposes. They did not accomplish the purposes in- 
tended and they did the Federalist party irreparable harm. 
These measures were evidently in violation of the first amend- 
ment of the Constitution, which forbids Congress to make any 
laws abridging freedom of speech or of the press, and the 
Republicans could rightfully say that the government was 
becoming tyrannical. 

356. The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions. Influenced by 
Jefferson, the legislatures of Virginia and Kentucky promptly 



JOHN AD.YMS S ADMINISTRATION 



279 



passed resolutions expressive of decided opposition to the Alien 
and Sedition Acts. The Virginia resolutions, written by Madi- 
son, pronounced the Acts unconstitutional ; but the Kentucky 
measures, framed by Jefferson, went so far as to declare the 
dangerous doctrine that a state might rightfully nullify any 
act of Congress that was a violation of the Constitution. The 
two sets of resolutions were sent to the legislatures of other 
states, but received little or no sympathy. The purpose of tlie 
resolutions was not so much to question constitutional rights, 




Washington's tomb at mount veknon 



but rather to defeat the Federalist party at the approaching 
presidential election (1800). 

Nullifying the law is to refuse to allow it to be enforced; 
hence nullification is a very dangerous doctrine, which, if 
exercised by the individual state, instead of by the Supreme 
Court of the United States, would soon break up the Union. 
The idea that states might resist the national government if 



280 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

they saw fit was destined to make trouble many years later 
and finally brought about the Civil "War. 

357. The Death of Washington. In the midst of the excite- 
ment attendant upon the enactment of unpopular laws and 
party strife, Washington, the one man who possessed the mod- 
erating influence then so indispensable, died at his home at 
Mount Vernon, in the last month of the last year of the 
eighteenth century (December 14, 1799). The people mourned 
him as a father, who highly deserved the love and gratitude 
of the whole nation for all coming ages. Washington's remains 
were entombed at Mount Vernon. The tomb is a shrine which 
men of every nation, irrespective of party, creed, or color, visit 
with feelings of veneration. A tradition of the New York 
Indians says, "Alone of all white men, Washington has been 
admitted to the Indian heaven, because of his justice to the 
red men. He lives in a great palace and is dressed in his 
uniform with a sword at his side." 

358. John Marshall Appointed Chief Justice. Before going 
out of office (1801) Adams performed the crowning act of his 
administration by appointing John Marshall, a Virginia Feder- 
alist, as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. Marshall, who for 
thirty-five years used his powerful influence to make the gen- 
eral government superior to the states in all questions concern- 
ing the common interests of the nation, proved himself the 
greatest of American jurists, and it is fittingly said of him that 
"he found the Constitution paper, and made it power." He 
has also, without exaggeration, been styled "a second maker of 
the Constitution." 

The sending of an envoy to France Avithout consulting the 
leaders of his party, the Alien and Sedition Acts, the taxes 
made necessary in preparing for the war with France, and the 
prosecutions for sedition, destroyed Adams's popularity in the 
Republican party and deprived him of the united support of 
the Federalists. After it had become evident that there would 
be a Republican president with a large majority in both houses 



JOHN ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 281 

of Congress, the Federalists resolved to uphold their power in 
the third department and passed without any real need, a 
judiciary act, creating new courts, and new salaried officials. 
Adams was still busy appointing men for these offices when the 
hour of twelve struck on the night of March 3, 1801. The next 
morning he set out for his home in Quincy, Massachusetts, 
without waiting to greet his unwelcome successor. 

359. Catholic Immigration. The Irish Rebellion of 1798 was 
the occasion of a vast stream of Catholic immigration to the 
United States. Owing to this fact, the Catholic Church grew 
rapidly in numbers, so that the Catholic population of New 
York, which eleven years previous had numbered about one 
hundred, had now increased to about fourteen thousand. It 
was, moreover, regarded as something marvelous that six 
priests should be ordained in New York City in one day. ' ' The 
event," writes the venerable Bishop Carroll, "was a happy 
day for the diocese." In view of this increase, the Sovereign 
Pontiff raised the See of Baltimore (1808) to the rank of an 
Archbishopric with, four auxiliary bishoprics — New York, 
Philadelphia, Boston, and Bardstown, Kentucky. 

360. Notable Facts. The Federalist party, in power for the 
first years of our national life, had governed well. It had 
built up the credit of the country; prevented war with both 
England and France ; and laid the foundation of a strong 
central government. Its task, however, was now completed, 
and in a few years the party passed out of existence. Nation- 
ality having now been firmly established, the country was pre- 
pared for a successful government under the Democratic- 
Republican, or common people's party. 



CHAPTER XIX 

THOMAS JEFFERSON'S ADMINISTEATION 
DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN— 1801-1809 

361. Jefferson and Burr Are Elected. The third presidential 
campaign began with the Federalists divided and the Demo- 
cratic-Republicans united and hopeful. John Adams and 
Charles C. Pinckney were the Federalist candidates, while 
Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr represented the Democratic- 
Republicans. Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr each received 
an equal number of votes (seventy-three) and the election of 
the President was thrown for the first time into the House of 
Representatives. On the thirty-sixth ballot Jefferson received 
the votes of ten states out of sixteen and was elected President, 
and Burr became Vice-president. 

The quarrel between Hamilton and Adams came to a climax 
in this election of 1800. Hamilton determined to prevent Adams 
from receiving the nomination for the presidency ; not succeed- 
ing in this, he worked against him during the campaign, even 
spreading broadcast a letter in which he described Adams as 
totally unfit for the office. "When the election of the President 
was thrown into the House of Representatives, Jefferson would, 
of course, have immediately been elected had the majority of 
the House been Republican. It was, however, Federalist, and 
the Federalists were free to choose from their enemies the one 
who was least likely to do them harm. Intrigues were entered 
into with both Jefferson and Burr. Neither candidate would 
make definite promises, although Burr held out hopes of alli- 
ance with the Federalists. Hamilton, reasserting his better 
self, now came forward with a letter and declared that of the 
two men Jefferson was the less dangerous. Thus, after a long 
and bitter struggle, Jefferson was chosen President of the 

282 



THOMAS Jefferson's administration 



283 



United States, and Burr Vice-president. Burr was a restless, 
scheming man, thoroughly distrusted by the better men of the 
country. 

362. Jefferson's Inauguration. Jefferson (1743-1826) was the 
first President to be inaugurated in the new capitol, which was 
ridiculed as a "palace in the woods." He walked thither, clad 
in his ordinary attire, accompanied by a few political friends, 
and quietly took the oath of office without any impressive cere- 
mony. Jefferson showed his greatness when he declared in 




THE CAPITOL TODAY 



his inaugural address: "We are all Republicans! We are 
all Federalists ! ' ' and mentioned the principles of the govern- 
ment as being: 

(a) equal rights to all men; 

(b) peace, commerce, and honest friendship with all nations; 

(c) no entangling alliance with any foreign power; 

(d) the supremacy of the civil over the military power; 
(f) economy in public expense; and 

(/) the honest payment of public debts. 



284 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Jefferson had for many years figured prominently in political 
life as a member of the Continental Congress, governor of Vir- 
ginia, minister to France, Secretary of State, and Vice-presi- 
dent. Many people feared that he and his party would try to 
undo the work that had been done imder Federalist supremacy. 
But he made no serious changes, and managed affairs so skill- 
fully that the people's fears were soon quieted. Being a poor 
public speaker, he began the custom of sending his "annual 
message" to be read before Congress, instead of delivering it in 
a formal address, as Washington and Adams had done. 

Jefferson was a most remarkable man. In addition to being 
an able statesman, he was a good marksman, a daring horse- 
man, a skillful violinist, and a brilliant scholar. Though digni- 
fied and gentlemanly in manners, and scholarly in tastes, he had 
a strong dislike for ceremony and show. Of aristocratic Vir- 
ginian descent, he had in his latter days become very demo- 
cratic, having great faith in the common people. He wished 
the President to be simple in dress and manners, and to mingle 
freely with the people. His habit of attiring himself in a red 
waistcoat, yarn stockings, and worn-down slippers, of going 
to his duties at the Capitol on horseback, and tying his steed 
with his own hands before entering, and of hospitably keeping 
open house at all hours, made him a strong contrast to Wash- 
ington, with his courtly appearance, weekly formal receptions, 
and coach-and-six. No wonder that such simple tastes, and 
sympathy for, and confidence in the common people, made him 
the idol of the masses, and engendered a tendency toward sim- 
plicity in the dress and manners of the people. 

The Cabinet reorganized by Jefferson, unlike the Cabinets of 
Washington and Adams, was a harmonious and loyal body of 
men, of which, however, Madison, Secretary of State, and 
Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, a noted Swiss, were 
the only members of more than average ability. 

363. Some Economic Measures. Complying with the finan- 
cial plans of Secretary of the Treasury Gallatin, Congress : 



THOMAS Jefferson's administration 285 

(a) greatly reduced the army, though it appropriated money 
to establish a military academy at West Point; 

(6) sold some naval vessels and discontinued the construction 
of new ones; 

(c) repealed laws which levied internal taxes; 

(d) abolished some offices by joining two in one where prac- 

ticable ; and 
(c) increased the income from customs duties. 

After the new Economic Measures went into effect fortifica- 
tions were not kept intact and the army and navy were allowed 
to dwindle. Subsequent wars with the Barbary States and 
with England eventually showed that some of Jefferson's 
economic reductions were not wise. 

364. The Louisiana Purchase. We have seen that France 
gave the part of Louisiana which was west of the Mississippi, 
and the Island of New Orleans to Spain after the treaty of 
Paris in 1763 in return for Florida. Napoleon, however, regret- 
ting the loss of the territory, succeeded in regaining it from 
Spain (1800). The knowledge of this exchange caused great 
alarm in the United States because : 

(a) France, being a more powerful nation than Spain, was 
also a more dangerous neighbor; furthermore, since 
France was on the verge of war with England, the latter 
nation might easily take Louisiana from France and 
then the United States would scarcely be able to main- 
tain her dearly-bought independence, with her old 
enemy on both the north and the west ; 
(&) the West lost its "right of deposit" at New Orleans. 

James Monroe was appointed special envoy to France to 
assist our minister, Livingston, in securing by purchase the 
Island of New Orleans. France and England were again on 
the eve of war, and Napoleon realized that he could not hold 
Louisiana against England. He startled our envoys, therefore, 
by asking through his agent what the United States would pay 
for the whole of Louisiana instead of New Orleans alone. 



286 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Napoleon was too busy in Europe to think of colonizing Amer- 
ica, and consequently preferred to sell Louisiana to the United 
States, rather than to let it fall into the hands of Great Britain 
— hence the unexpected inquiry relative to disposing of it. 

The vast territory of Louisiana, comprising the entire region 
between the Mississippi River and the Rocky Mountains and 
extending from the north of Texas to the southern boundary 
of British America, was purchased from France (1803) for 
fifteen million dollars. 

Upon signing the treaty, Napoleon remarked, "This acces- 
sion of territory strengthens forever the power of the United 
States, and I have given to England a maritime rival that will, 
sooner or later, humble her pride." 

Livingston said, "We have lived long, but this is the noblest 
work of our lives." 

The purchase of Louisiana was one of the most important 
events in the history of the United States. Among its far- 
reaching effects may be mentioned the following: 
(a) it doubled the area of the United States; 
(h) it ended the contest of rival European nations for the 
possession of the Mississippi Valley ; 

(c) it showed the benefit of an occasional loose construction of 

the Constitution ; 

(d) it placed the United States in a position to become one of 

the great powers of the world ; 

(e) it made the United States a maritime rival of England. 
In this purchase our ministers had gone beyond the power 

of their instructions, having neither the authority nor the 
money to purchase the entire territory; but fearing. that Napo- 
leon might change his mind, they completed the treaty. Jef- 
ferson, being a strict constructionist, was greatly perplexed, 
for, by the strict interpretation of the Constitution, there was 
no power given to the government to acquire territory. He 
advocated an amendment which should give Congress this 
power ; but there was no time to be lost, and his friends finally 



THOMAS Jefferson's administration 287 

persuaded him that the treaty-making power of the Constitu- 
tion (note the loose construction) included this right. The 
Federalists, taking the strict construction view, accused Jeffer- 
son of violating the Constitution in buying Louisiana. 

365. Jefferson Is Re-elected. When the fact and terms of the 
Louisiana Purchase became known, the people were astonished 
at the magnitude of the acquisition. The treaty was so clearly 
for the good of the nation that it was generally applauded, 
and at 'the election of 1804, Jefferson was re-elected by an 
enormous majority. George Clinton of New York was chosen 
Vice-president. 

366. Duel Between Hamilton and Burr — Burr's Conspiracy. 
Aaron Burr was a candidate for the governorship of New York. 
Hamilton, considering him a man unworthy of the office, vig- 
orously opposed him. Stung by the attacks of his opponent, 
Burr challenged him to a duel. The two men met at a secluded 
spot on the Jersey shore, and Hamilton fell, mortally wounded. 
Amid the lamentations of the nation, the great Federalist 
leader, who had merited the title "Little Lion" during the 
Kevolution, was laid in the grave (July, 1804). He had helped 
to frame the Constitution and had, more than any other man, 
influenced the states to accept it; he had put into effect the 
great financial plan that was giving stability to the nation. 

Burr's reckless spirit drove him into the wilderness. He 
made a tour of the Mississippi Valley, and began to build boats 
and collect an army under the pretense of making an expedition 
against the Spaniards of Mexico. His real purpose, however, 
it is believed, was to sever the southwestern states from the 
Union and set up an independent nation in Texas and Mexico, 
with himself at the head. He was at length betrayed, arrested, 
and tried for treason by Chief Justice Marshall of the Supreme 
Court, at Richmond, Virginia. The Constitution defines treason 
only as levying war against the United States or in adhering 
to the enemy and giving them aid and comfort. Burr had never 
been in a position to levy war or to aid an enemy. He was 



288 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



therefore released. The career which his brilliant talents might 
have made honorable and useful, was wrecked, and Burr lived 
lonely and despised for the rest of his days. 

367. First Explorations of the Northwest. The Louisiana 
Purchase opened a great field for western emigration, and 
Jefferson, realizing the importance of some knowledge of the 
new territory, sent an expedition, under the leadership of 
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, brother of George Rogers 



#!''^:iidiPsyfe?5 




ROUTE OF THE LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 



Clark, to secure the trade of the Indians on the Missouri, then 
absorbed by English companies, and to explore the country to 
the western ocean. Leaving the log cabin town of St. Louis in 
the spring of 1804, the party pushed its boats up the Missouri, 
crossed over the Rocky Mountains and floated down the Colum- 
bia River to the blue waters of the Pacific, which it reached 
in November, 1805, after a perilous journey of four thou- 
sand miles. The party returned the next year and gave the 
people of the East a glowing account of the "vast illimitable 



THOMAS Jefferson's administration 289 

West" with its wonderful resources. The Lewis-Clark expedi- 
tion gave the United States another claim to the splendid region 
called Oregon, early discovered (1790) by Gray. It strength- 
ened our rights to the Oregon country against the claims of 
England and Russia; and it, together with Pike's explorations, 
gave the nation an idea of the great value of the Louisiana 
Purchase. 

Jjieutenant Pike, in conimand of the United States troops, 
set out from St. Louis and explored the head-waters of the 
Mississippi, Arkansas, and Red rivers. He discovered the 
mountain peak to which was given his name, but was not suc- 
cessful in his attempt to reach its summit. Five years after 
the Lewis-Clark exploration, a New York fur trader named 
Astor, established a trading post at the mouth of the Columbia 
River, and called it Astoria. A line of posts was eventually 
established from the upper Missouri to Astoria by the Pacific 
Fur Company, headed by Astor. 

368. Fulton's Steamboat. Many people feared that the Re- 
public, with its vast new territory, was too large to be held 
together; but a means of bringing its parts in closer commu- 
nication was even then at hand. Robert Fulton, a native of 
Pemisylvania, of Irish descent, invented the first successful 
steamboat, the Clermont. The boat made its trial trip up the 
Hudson from New York to Albany in thirty-two hours (August 
11, 1807), and from this time on steam navigation made rapid 
progress; only twelve years later (1819) the Savannah, the 
first ocean steamship, started from Savannah, Georgia, and 
crossed the Atlantic to Liverpool in twenty-five days — a great 
feat, the credit of which belongs to a southern state. 

No one knows when or by whom the first steamboat was 
invented. At the beginning of the year (1807) there was not 
one in use in all the world. A number of experiments made 
by both European and American inventors had met with some 
success. John Fitch, a KentuckiaU, built a steamboat nearly 
twenty years earlier than Fulton, but it had only a temporary 



290 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



success. No practical steamboat was constructed before Ful- 
ton's invention, and it was not until after the trip of the 
Clermont that the steamboat was regarded with favor and 
came into general use. Before that event people were preju- 
diced against such inventions and laughed at "Fulton's folly," 
which was finally described as a "monster, defying wind and 
tide, breathing flame and smoke." 




Fulton's steamboat 



369. War with the Barbary States. During the previous 
presidencies the United States, having no ships-of-war worth 
mentioning, had to buy, as it were, the good will of the Barbary 
States, paying them high ransoms and tributes. Finally, the 
haughty Pasha, or governor of Tripoli, not contented with the 
tribute he had been receiving, became so insolent that Jefferson 
ordered the construction of a fleet of war vessels, which, under 
the command of Commodore Preble, he sent against Tripoli. 
During the attack the frigate Philadelphia had run aground 



THOMAS JEFFERSON 'S ADMINISTRATION 291 

in the harbor of Tripoli, and was forced to surrender. Later 
on, however, a very higli tide floated her ott', giving the Tripoli- 
tans a fine addition to their navy. Stephen Decatnr, one of 
the American officers, entered the harbor with a small vessel 
in which were concealed a number of men. Under the pretense 
that his ship was in distress, he pushed up close to the Phila- 
delphia, leaped aboard it with his men, swept the enemy into 
the sea, set the ship on fire, and sailed away unharmed amidst 
the thundering fires of the batteries. The city was repeatedly 
bombarded, and the Pasha was so thoroughly humiliated that 
he was glad to sue for peace (1805). As a result of the 
treaty 

((/) the other Barbary States, surprised at this stand of the 
United States, also ceased their attacks on our com- 
merce ; 
(&) our merchant marine increased and became a training 
school in which our officers and seamen were prepared 
for the impending war with England ; 
(c) Jefit'erson was forced to increase the navy, the good effects 
of which were soon to be felt. 
370. France and Great Britain Plunder American Ships. The 
Barbary Powers were not the only enemies of American com- 
merce. France and Great Britain, at war with one another, 
were trying to injure each other's trade, altogether regardless 
of the injury inflicted upon American commerce. Some of the 
arrogant measures of the two belligerents, which nearly swept 
American trade from the seas, were : 

(a) the British government published an ''Order in Council" 
(1806) declaring all French ports from Brest to the Elbe 
in a state of blockade. Napoleon retaliated by the "Ber- 
lin Decree" (1806), declaring the British Islands in a 
state of blockade; 
(&) England, by another "Order in Council" (1807), forbade 
neutral vessels to enter a French port without previously 
stopping at a British port and paying a tax, and doing 



292 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the same thing on the return voyage. "Neutral ves- 
sels ' ' here meant American vessels, as nearly all Europe 
was at war. 

Napoleon promptly replied by his "Milan Decree," which 
declared that any neutral vessel which had paid a duty at an 
English port, might be seized at any French port. 

According to law, ships are not allowed to enter a "block- 
aded" port except at the risk of being captured and confiscated. 
A blockade, however, to be effective, must have the entrance 
of the port guarded by ships. France and Great Britain both 
asserted only a "paper blockade," that is, issued mere block- 
ading declarations without stationing any ships to enforce the 
same. American vessels bound to or from blockaded ports were 
captured anywhere on the high seas by the cruisers of both 
belligerents. 

371. England Claims the Right of Search and Impressment. 
The arbitrary ruling of the English with respect to our neutral 
commerce finally became unbearable when England again began 
to search our vessels for seamen of English birth and to impress 
them into the British navy. British war vessels even anchored 
outside American ports and hundreds of American vessels were 
captured and thousands of our seamen impressed. The height 
of insult was reached when the British frigate Leopard over- 
hauled the American frigate Chesapeake off Hampton Roads, 
Virginia, and ordered her to submit to search. Upon refusal, 
the Leopard opened fire on the Chesapeake, which, unprepared 
for battle, surrendered. Four men, three of whom were Amer- 
ican citizens, were seized and impressed into British service. 
The whole nation was aroused at this outrage. Jefferson, in a 
letter to Lafayette, said that never since the battle of Lexing- 
ton had he seen the country in such a state of indignation. The 
English government offered a half-hearted apology, but re- 
affirmed the right of search. 

372. The Embargo Act. What could America do in the face 
of such outrages ? One of two things : 



THOMAS Jefferson's administration 293 

(a) make war on l)oth France and England. Jefferson strongly 

preferred peace to war; or 
(&) lay an embargo on American shipping, forbidding trade 
with either nation. This course, however, would ruin 
thousands of merchants and traders, and deprive great 
numbers of seamen of employment. 

Jefferson decided to try the embargo, and the Embargo Act, 
nicknamed ''0 grab me act," was passed (1807), forbidding 
American ships to leave for a foreign port under any condition. 
This was intended to prevent the loss of our ships and seamen 
and punish both France and England by depriving them of 
American goods. The act proved a complete failure. It seemed 
more like punishing America than Great Britain and France. 
All classes of industries, except manufacture, suffered severely 
under the law. The New England Federalists declared it un- 
constitutional, and threatened secession. France and Great 
Britain laughed at the embargo; consequently, the act was 
repealed after fourteen months and replaced by the Non-Inter- 
course Act, by which all commerce was prohibited with Great 
Britain and France, and their colonies. 

Though the Embargo Act was a failure, it did some good by 
causing many of the people to turn to manufacturing, and 
from this small beginning our country has gradually grown 
to be one of the greatest manufacturing nations of the world. 

373. Other Events. The unpopular Naturalization Act was 
repealed (1802) and the number of years' residence required 
for citizenship was reduced from fourteen to five, the same as 
it is at present. 

Ohio, with a population of forty-five thousand, was admitted 
(1802) into the Union as the seventeenth state, without slavery. 

The second census of the United States was taken in 1800; 
it showed a population of over five million and was the basis 
for a new apportionment of representatives. The unit was 
fixed at one representative for every thirty-three thousand 
inhabitants, and thus the membership of the House was in- 



294 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



creased from one hundred and five to one hundred and 
forty-one. 

In order to avoid the repetition of a contest such as the tie 
vote between Jefferson and Burr had occasioned, the Twelfth 
Amendment, wliich provided that the electors cast separate 
ballots for President and Vice-president, was proposed by Con- 
gress. The amendment was ratified by the states (1804). 

Congress put a stop to the importation of slaves after Janu- 
ary, 1808. The law was heartily endorsed by Jefferson, who, 
like Washington and most leading men of the South, held 







MONTICELLO 



slaves, but sincerely hoped that the country would find some 
peaceful means of freeing the negroes. 

374. Jefferson Retires to Monticello. Jefferson's popularity 
suffered greatly on account of the embargo. He was, however, 
not long in regaining his former prestige, and the people urged 
him to accept the presidency a third term. However, he fol- 
lowed the example of Washington and refused. On leaving the 
capitol he retired to Monticello, his beautiful home in Virginia, 
where he spent the remainder of his useful life. His wisdom 
gained for him in his old age the title of ' ' Sage of Monticello. ' ' 



CHAPTER XX 

JAMES MADISON'S ADMINISTEATION 
DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN— 1809-1S17 

375. Madison and Clinton Are Elected. James Madison, Sec- 
retary of State, and George Clinton, Vice-president, during the 
previous administration, were the Republican candidates for 
the election of 1808. They were elected by a large majority 
of electoral votes over Charles C. Pinckney and Rufus King, 
the Federalist nominees. The same principles (economy at 
home and peace abroad) continued to control the government 
and the same harmony, though not the same strength, was 
visible in the Cabinet. Albert Gallatin, one of our greatest 
financiers, continued at the head of the Treasury Department, 
and in 1811 James Monroe was chosen Secretary of State. 

Madison (1751-1836), like Washington and Jefferson, was a 
native of Virginia (the Mother of Presidents). He had, as we 
have seen, acquired an enduring reputation as the foremost 
framer of the Constitution, as leader of his party in Congress, 
and as Secretary of State. He was universally esteemed for 
his kindly disposition, great refinement, statesmanship, and 
learning. Inasmuch as he was a most intimate friend of Jeffer- 
son, and a strong supporter of the Jeffersonian policy, his 
administration may be looked upon as a continuation of that 
of his predecessor. He hated war, and,*like the three preceding 
presidents, thought it more conducive to the general welfare 
of the nation to avoid it. This, however, was fast becoming 
impossible. 

376. Foreign Difficulties Continue. Foreign affairs were in 
a deplorable condition when Madison began his administration: 

295 



296 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(a) Great Britain and France, being still actively at war, con- 
tinued to capture our ships on the ocean and in foreign 
ports ; 

(h) the State Department at Washington had a list of six 
thousand American seamen who had been forced into 
the English navy, while nine hundred of our vessels 
were recorded to have been boarded by the British in 
eight years ; 

(c) by virtue of the Non-Intercourse Act, our ships were still 

forbidden to trade with either France or England; 

(d) the English minister at Washington had made a promise 

that the Orders in Council should be withdrawn, pro- 
vided the United States would repeal the Non-Inter- 
course Act. Subsequently, trade was reopened With Eng- 
land. The ships that first made the attempt to trade 
abroad were, however, immediately captured. The Or- 
ders in Council were still in force and the English min- 
ister who had made the promise was recalled as having 
exceeded his instructions, and the Non-Intercourse Act 
was again put in force. 
Great Britain claimed, "Once an Englishman, always an 
Englishman," whereas the United States held that any for- 
eigner could become an American by naturalization. There 
were, of course, causes for annoyance on both sides. It not 
infrequently happened that English seamen procured fraudu- 
lent naturalization papers and entered the American navy, so 
that it was not unusual for an English captain, visiting an 
American port, to find himself without a crew when ready to 
put to sea again. The better treatment and higher pay received 
in American ships made American naval service preferable 
to English service. In the meantime Congress (May, 1810) 
passed the "Macon Bill," which, named after its author, re- 
pealed the Non-Intercourse Act. It provided, however, that in 
case either Great Britain or France should repeal its decrees, 
non-intercourse should be resumed with the other nation. 



JAMES Madison's administration 297 

377. Napoleon's Intrigue. The wily Napoleon, feigning 
friendship, announced in a letter to the United States a repeal 
of the Milan and Berlin decrees. At once numerous American 
vessels sailed for European ports, but they were promptly 
seized and despoiled by the French, Matters were now fast 
hastening toward a crisis. 

Madison, provoked by all these outrages, ordered the frigate 
President to sea to protect our commerce. The President was 
soon fired upon by the British sloop of war Little Belt, and in 
the ensuing battle the English vessel was badly crippled. The 
people felt that this event avenged the Leopard-Chesapeake 
insult, which was still fresh in their minds. 

378. More Indian Troubles. To add to the difficulties con- 
fronting the nation, the Indians of the western frontiers, led 
by the great chiefs, Tecumseh and "The Prophet," who, it is 
supposed, were incited by the English, threatened the safety 
of the western settlers. General William Harrison, governor 
of Indian Territory, collected troops and repulsed the savages 
at their town of Tippecanoe, on the Wabash River. The losses 
on both sides were very heavy, Harrison losing one-fourth of 
his men. Tecumseh, absent at the time of the battle of Tippe- 
canoe — urging the southei'n Indians to join the confederation — 
returned only after the defeat of these northern tribes by 
Harrison. 

379. War Declared. The responsibility of maintaining peace 
or entering upon war was now thrown upon Congress, which 
met in extra session (November 4, 1811). It had a strong Re- 
publican majority in each house — an unusual number of able 
and high-spirited young men from the West and South. These 
were led by John C, Calhoun, of South Carolina, and Henry 
Clay, of Kentucky, This vigorous generation of young con- 
gressmen loudly advocated war and finally forced Madison to 
declare it, by threatening him with the loss of a second term 
in case he should refuse. Thus pressed and overruled, the 
peace-loving President reluctantly signed the act declaring war 



298 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 




JAMES Madison's administration 299 

against Great Britain (June 18, 1812). Two days previous, 
England had revoked the Orders in Council, but this news 
reached America too late. Even if it had come in due time, 
war could scarcely have been averted, unless Great Britain's 
claim of search had also been renounced. It has been said, 
without proof, however, that Madison agreed to sanction war 
as a condition of his renomination. 

Calhoun (1782-1850) and Clay (1777-1852) were for the next 
forty years the great political leaders of the country. Calhoun, 
at this time a champion of nationalization and the protective 
tariff policy, afterwards became the leader of the opposing 
party, which advocated states' rights, slavery, and free trade. 
Clay, only thirty-four years of age, had gained prominence in 
his own state legislature, and later twice filled a vacancy in 
the United States Senate, where he at once gained distinction 
for his sound logic, force of will, and fiery eloquence. He was 
of a peace-loving spirit, and, rising above all personal and 
party considerations, was MdioUy devoted to the interests of 
the Union. Daniel Webster (1782-1852) of New Hampshire, 
the third of this notable group of statesmen, entered Congress 
some years later. 

380. Who Is the Enemy? It may seem strange that the 
United States chose to declare war against Great Britain rather 
than France. Both nations seemed equally blamable as far as 
American commerce was concerned.. However, it would have 
been foolish to declare war against both, and England was our 
old enemy. Moreover, there was the chance of wresting Canada 
from her, which achievement would not only drive her entirely 
from the continent, but might also force her to make a favor- 
able peace. Hence the object of the war with England was 
not to secure directly the rights of vessel-owners, for it was 
thought that our weak navy would be no match for the English 
fleet in an ocean conflict, but rather to get possession of Canada, 
and thereby force England to acknowledge our commercial 
independence. 



300 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

381. Madison Is Re-elected. The general popularity of the 
war was shown at the next election, in which Madison was the 
candidate of the war Republicans. The peace Republicans 
supported the Federalist nominee, DeWitt Clinton, of New 
York. Madison obtained one hundred and twenty-eight of 
the two hundred and eighteen electoral votes, and was re- 
elected President. Vice-president George Clinton died during 
office and Elbridge Gerry, of Massachusetts, was chosen to suc- 
ceed him. 

382. Causes of the War of 1812. The United States now 
made preparations to enter upon the second war with England ; 
this time to secure commercial independence. The causes for 
this war, briefly summed up, were : 

(a) the impressment of our seamen into the English navy; 

(b) the violation of the rights of commerce by British cruisers 

in American waters ; 

(c) the "paper" blockades of the Orders in Council; 

(d) the attacks of the Indians incited by English traders. 
The United States was wholly unprepared for the conflict 

and was forced to enter upon this important war without the 
support of all its sections. The people of the vigorous agricul- 
tural sections of the South and "West, chafing under the humilia- 
tions which the nation had so long been suffering, clamored 
for war; but the peace Republicans of the middle states and 
the Federalists of New England preferred an irregular and haz- 
ardous trade to war. Most of the little money then in the 
United States was possessed by the people of New England. 
They refused to lend it to the government to carry on the war, 
and they refused to muster their militia. 

383. American War Plan for 1812 — Failure. The project of 
invading and overrunning Canada before England could send 
a large army to America seemed to be uppermost in the minds 
of the Americans. Hence three armies were brought together 
on the Canadian frontier : 

(a) one, under General "William Hull, was to defend Detroit, 



JAMES MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 



301 



the key to the fur trade, and the controlling center of the 
land of the Northwest; 

(&) another, under General Van Rensselaer, was to cross the 
Niagara River. Re-enforced from Hull's army at De- 
troit, it was to capture York (Toronto), and thence ad- 
vance to Montreal, where it was to be joined by 

(c) a third army under General Dearborn, advancing from 
Lake Champlain. After the capture of Montreal, the 
combined forces were to take Quebec. 
General William Hull toiled over the miserable roads through 

the forest from the Maumee River to Detroit. Followed bv a 




FORT DEARBORN AND DETROIT 



large force of British and Indians, under General Brock, he 
fell back on Detroit, where, to the surprise of everybody, he 
surrendered (August 8, 1812) Detroit and the whole of Michi- 
gan without a blow. Fort Dearborn (on the present site of 
Chicago) had meanwhile also fallen into the hands of the 
British. Its inmates were cruelly massacred by the Indians. 
The inhabitants of the Canadian frontier were ill disposed 
toward the United States. They were largely Tories who had 
withdrawn thither during or after the Revolution. Hull, having 
been subsequently tried by court-martial, was sentenced to be 
shot, but in consideration of his age and gallant services during 



302 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the Revolution he was pardoned by the, President. Historians 
are divided in regard to his course. Hull himself declared that 
humane motives alone, and the fear of the certain massacre of 
his forces by the savages, intensified by exaggerated reports 
of the enemy's strength, led him thus to sacrifice his reputa- 
tion. It is hard to fix the stain of cowardice upon the gray- 
haired veteran who had fought bravely, side by side with Wash- 
ington, through the perils of Trenton and Princeton ; who had 
gallantly led his men to the charge at Saratoga ; and who had 
faced without flinching the fire of the enemy at Stony Point. 

The second army, under Van Rensselaer, crossed the Niagara 
River and attacked Queenstown Heights, but not being re- 
enforced by the New York militia, which was unwilling to 
leave the state, the entire army was surrounded and captured 
(October, 1812). Van Rensselaer had generously equipped his 
militia at his own expense, but when it proved itself too cow- 
ardly to fight, he threw up his command in disgust. 

The third army, under General Dearborn, failed to procure 
ready assistance from New York and New England and accom- 
plished nothing. 

Thus all the land campaigns of the first year of the war 
ended disastrously for the Americans, and it was clear that 
Canada could not be conquered at a dash. 

384. Naval Victories of 1812. The first of our numerous and 
glorious naval victories was won by David Porter, captain of 
the Essex. His ship was mistaken for a merchantman and fired 
upon by the British sloop Alert. Porter replied with a terrible 
broadside and captured (August 13, 1812) the Alert without 
the loss of a man, after an engagement of only eight minutes. 

Six days later the American frigate Constitution, commanded 
by Captain Isaac Hull, met the British frigate Guerriere in 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence. After a contest of forty minutes 
the British ship was reduced to a total wreck, while the 
Constitution sustained but slight injury. This victory was 
hailed with ringing cheers and expressions of great rejoicings, 



JAMES MADISON 'S ADMINISTRATION 303 

for the Guerriere had been particularly active in the searching 
of American vessels. The Constitution, described by an Eng- 
lish writer as ''a bunch of pine boards sailing under a bit of 
striped bunting," grew to be the pet ship of the American 
na\y and came to be known by old and young, from one end 
of tlie land to the other, as Old Ironsides. This famous ship 
was built in Boston and launched October, 1797. In 1830 it 
was pronounced unseaworthy and was to be destroyed. Poets 
and newspaper writers earnestly interposed and its destruc- 
tion was thus averted. After being thoroughly repaired it 
again put to sea. It made its last trip in 1877. Since then it 
has been used as a barrack, or receiving ship, in which the 
crews of our navy live while their own ships are undergoing 
repairs, and as such it may still be seen in the navy yard of 
Charlestown, Massachusetts. (Read Holmes 's ' ' Old Ironsides. ") 

Captain Jacob Jones, in command of the Wasp, captured 
(October) the British sloop Frolic off the coast of North Caro- 
lina, but scarcely was the battle over when a British man-of- 
war captured both the Wasp and her prize. 

Numerous privateers, too, had ventured to sea from every 
important harbor, greatly hampering British commerce and 
capturing no less than three hundred prizes during a single 
year. 

385. Naval Successes and Reverses of 1813. The year opened 
with a renewal of naval successes for the Americans. The 
sloop Hornet, with Captain Lawrence in command, captured 
the British brig Peacock. The Essex, with Porter in command, 
cruised for a year and a half in the waters of the Atlantic and 
Pacific, captured many British merchant vessels, broke up the 
British whaling trade, and afforded protection to American mer- 
chantmen. It was at last (1814) captured in the harbor of 
Valparaiso by two British men-of-war. 

The naval victories of 1813 were practically offset by the re- 
verses. Captain Lawrence, having been made commander of 
the frigate Chesapeake, was defeated near Boston harbor by 



304 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

the British frigate Shannon, commanded by Captain Broke. 
The last order of Captain Lawrence, when mortally wounded, 
"Don't give up the ship!" became the rallying cry of the 
American navy. This was our first important naval defeat, 
but it was not the only one. The Essex, as we have already 
noted, was captured in a neutral port; the Argus, after destroy- 
ing twenty-seven vessels in tlie English Channel, was taken by 
the Pelican; our frigate President was captured while endeav- 
oring to escape the blockade of New York harbor. 

386. Perry's Victory — The Constitution. On the lake fron- 
tier, a young naval officer, Captain Perry, had been busy build- 
ing a fleet of nine war vessels on Lake Erie. The British also 
equipped a fleet under Captain Barclay. The two forces met 
(September, 1813) at Put-in-Bay. The outcome of this des- 
perate fight was expressed in Perry's laconic message to 
General Harrison: "We have met the enemy and they are 
ours, two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." 
Perry's victory was the turning point of the war, for it gave 
us control of the Great Lakes and the West, thus enabling 
Harrison to enter Canada. Perry, a native of Rhode Island, 
had never been in action before. He named his flagship Law- 
rence, and a blue banner at its masthead bore the dying words 
of the brave Captain Lawrence, "Don't give up the ship!" 

There were many more American naval victories, but it 
remained for the Constitution, the celebrated Old Ironsides, with 
Captain Stewart in command, to win the final victory. Not 
knowing that the war had ended, he cruised off the island of 
Madeira and falling in with the British vessels Cyane and 
Levant, captured both after a sharp battle of forty minutes 
(February, 1815). 

387. American Privateering. England had blockaded the 
American ports one after another, and most of our fleet was 
shut up in the harbors of Boston, New London, and New York. 
Before the end of the year the blockade of all the Atlantic 
ports was effected. Hence, the defense of the newly acquired 



JAMES Madison's administration 305 

American reputation at sea was left to privateers, small 
vessels, quick to strike and quick to escape. In this way 
the Americans made their ships sources of profit. During the 
two and a half years of war our privateers took fourteen 
hundred prizes while the national cruisers took three hundred 
more. The True Blooded Yankee alone captured twenty-seven 
vessels in thirty-seven days, venturing even into Dublin Bay. 
Consequently, insurance rates on English vessels became ex- 
cessive, and tradesmen and ship-owners loudly denounced the 
continuation of the war. The British during this time made 
prizes of about seventeen hundred of our merchantmen. Un- 
armed vessels bearing the United States flag had (1814) almost 
ceased to sail the ocean. 

388. American Land Campaign of 1813. The land campaign 
of 1813 opened with a second attempt to invade Canada. The 
plan was threefold : 
(a) General Harrison was to proceed by way of Michigan, 

which territory he was to recover; 
(&) General Dearborn was to lead his army by way of the 

Niagara frontier; while 
(c) General Hampton was to move up to Canada by way of 
Lake Champlain. 

General Harrison, who was in charge of the American forces 
on the Mauraee River, accordingly moved on toward Detroit. 
A part of his army under Winchester was defeated on the 
Raisin River (January) by a superior force of British and 
Indians, commanded by Proctor ; the savage allies of the Brit- 
ish cruelly massacred and scalped the wounded. For years 
after, the River Raisin was a name of horror and "Remember 
the Raisin ' ' became the war-cry of the Kentuckians, who were 
numerously represented at this battle. Harrison twice repulsed 
Proctor at Fort Meigs and a third time at Fort Stephenson, but 
being scarcely able to hold his line of defense he could not 
retake Detroit as long as the English held control of Lake 
Erie. Commodore Perry, as we have seen, gallantly came to 



306 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



his rescue. Harrison, upon receiving the young hero's laconic 
dispatch, crossed to Canada, where he defeated the British- 
Indian forces commanded by Proctor and Tecumseh on the 
Thames River (October). Michigan territory was now regained 
and at least a part of Harrison's mission was accomplished. 

General Dearborn crossed Lake Ontario from Sackett's Harbor 
and burned the British supplies at York, now Toronto. Later, 
he attempted to invade Canada from Lewiston, but was forced 
to return without having accomplished anything. During the 
summer. General Dearborn was removed and General Wilkin- 
son appointed in his 
place. 

Generals Hampton 
and Wilkinson, the 
former commanding 
a part of the latter 's 
army, failed in their 
expedition against 
Montreal, owing to 
the fact that the two 
old generals could 
not agree. Thus we 
see that Dearborn's and Hampton's parts of the plan for 1813 
were complete failures. 

389. Gloomy Prospects for 1814. Though the navy, and also 
the land forces under General Harrison, had won some brilliant 
victories during the year 1813, the prospects at the opening of 
the year 1814 were gloomy, because : 
(a) there was great difficulty in raising troops; 
(h) the war department was badly managed; 

(c) the finances were in a miserable condition; 

(d) good leaders were lacking ; 

(e) England's conflict with Napoleon was nearing its close, 

so that she could now devote renewed energy to her 
American war. 




rurt Meigs^ 

*vFort Stephenson 



JAMES Madison's administration 



307 




The Canadian campaign for this year was entrusted to the 
able General Jacob Brown, with Winfield Scott as brigadier- 
general. Under 
Brown's generalship 
the well disciplined 
troops easily took 
Fort Erie. Pushing 
northward they 
drove the British 
from their entrench- 
ments at Chippewa, 
and forced them to 
retreat along Lake 
Erie. Having been 
re-enforced, the re- 
treating foe turning 
about, surprised and 

attacked the Americans at Lundy's Lane. After a most obsti- 
nately contested battle the British retreated. These were the 
last hostilities in this region. 

The Creek Indians, incited by 
Tecumseh, massacred the white 
settlers at Fort Mimms, Alabama, 
slaying some four hundred persons. 
Andrew Jackson, to whom had been 
entrusted the Southwest, promptly 
gathered a body of volunteers from 
Tennessee and Mississippi, invaded 
the Creek country, and completel}^ 
defeated the Indians at Tohopeka, 
or Horseshoe Bend, on the bank of 
the Alabama River. After Tecum- 
seh had been killed, the Indians of 
both the North and South were without a leader and were will- 
ing to conclude terms of peace. 




308 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



(&) 



390. The British Plan for 1814. Meanwhile Napoleon had 
been deposed and exiled to the island of Elba. England was 
consequently free to send a large number of veteran British 
troops to make a final attempt toward subduing the United 
States. 

Three great expeditions were accordingly planned : 
(a) the capture of Washington; 

the invasion of New York by the old Burgoyne route ; 
the invasion of Louisiana by way of New Orleans for the 
purpose of snatching this newly acquired territory from 
the United States. 

In accordance with the 
first part of the plan, five 
thousand British troops un- 
der Ross marched fifty miles 
across a populous country 
and coolly took the national 
capital against feeble resist- 
ance by a force under Gen- 
eral Winder. They burned 
the White House, the unfin- 
ished Capitol, and other pub- 
lic buildings, thus retaliating 
for the burning of York by 
Dearborn — ^and withdrew to their ships without encountering 
any serious resistance. Historians tell us that the English 
people did not approve of the destruction of our government 
property. One English editor is said to have declared, "The 
Cossacks spared Paris, but we spared not the Capitol of 
America." 

Encouraged by this success, General Ross now led his army 
against Baltimore, but here he met with stubborn resistance. 
The British forces were repulsed (September) and General 
Ross was killed. The British next attacked Fort McHenry, 
which guarded the approaches to Baltimore, but were again 




JAMES MADISON S ADMINISTRATION 



309 



forced to withdraw. They then sailed to join the expedition 
against the South. During the night attack upon Fort 
McHenry, Francis Scott Key, of Baltimore, was detained on 
board a British ship, whither he had gone to secure the release 
of some prisoners. All night long he watched the bombard- 
ment of the fort. Eagerly watching the flag still flying over 
Fort McHenry, he wrote in pencil on the back of an old letter 
our national hymn, "The Star Spangled Banner," which was 
soon being sung throughout the country. 

The American forces on Lake Champlain were in charge 
of Commodore McDonough, whose flagship was the Saratoga. 




BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN 



When the British, commanded by Prevost, entered Plattsburg 
(September), McDonough, after having earnestly implored the 
Divine assistance, began a sharp two hours' naval contest, 
which resulted in a victory for the Americans. Prevost re- 
treated to Canada, and the war in that section was ended. 

To Edward Pakenham, one of Wellington's ablest lieuten- 
ants, with an army of some ten thousand veterans, supported 
by a fleet of fifty vessels, was entrusted the capture of New 
Orleans. The expedition effected a landing below the city. 
Andrew Jackson, the great conqueror of the Creek Indians, 
had already hastened thither and had hurriedly gathered some 



310 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

six thousand men from Kentucky, Tennessee, and the neigh- 
boring region, five thousand of whom were Catholics. With these 
troops of intrepid backwoodsmen, the hardy Indian fighter 
took his stand behind breastworks and poured a deadly fire 
into the ranks of the British, who were forced to withdraw, 
after the loss of some two thousand men, among whom was 
Pakenham. Never before in English history had a British 
army been so badly defeated. The American loss was exceed- 
ingly light — probably some seventy men all told. 

391. The Treaty of Peace. In a few days, rumors of Jack- 
son's brilliant victory reached Washington. But this good 
news was soon followed by a still greater cause for rejoicing. 
Even before the battle of New Orleans was fought peace had 
been signed at Ghent, Belgium, on Christmas Eve, 1814. Owing 
to the slow means of communication the document, signed by 
the peace commissioners, had not reached the United States in 
time to prevent the battle. 

The terms of the treaty provided : 
((/) for the mutual restoration of all conquered territory; and 
(&) for the appointment of commissioners to settle the north- 
ern boundary line of the United States. 

Strange to say, though the causes of the war were chiefly 
the impressment of our seamen and the British ''Orders in 
Council," nothing concerning these two points was mentioned 
in the treaty. But there was, nevertheless, a tacit understand- 
ing on both sides, that American commerce was not to be 
interfered with, and Great Britain thenceforward never again 
impressed our seamen. Besides, peace, even at a sacrifice, was 
at the time desirable, for New England was assuming a dan- 
gerous attitude. 

392. The Hartford Convention. Delegates from nearly all 
the New England states met in secret session at Hartford, the 
real proceedings of which were not made known. It is sup- 
posed that the purpose was to arrange for secession from the 
Union. As the delegates w^ere all Federalists and their meeting 



JAMES Madison's administration 311 

a secret one, the whole affair bore the stamp of national dis- 
loyalty, which, with the party's opposition to the war, gave 
the death blow to the Federalist party. 

393. Results of the War. At the close of the war, the coun- 
try was still where it stood in 1812. Its boundary was un- 
changed; its international rights were still undefined; the 
country was still divided by sectional interests. The war, not- 
withstanding, had its good results : 

(a) European nations were convinced that we were able to 
take care of ourselves, and our ships thereafter navi- 
gated the ocean in peace ; 
(6) the United States was thenceforward recognized by the 

world as a first-class power; 
(c) a new impulse was given to our heretofore backward man- 
ufacturing industry. The embargoes and the maritime 
dangers which had retarded American commerce had 
caused many capitalists to turn their attention to manu- 
facturing, and thereafter we were not obliged to depend 
upon England for cotton and woolen goods ; 
{(I) love for and confidence in the Union were increased — a 
long stride forward since Washington's time. 
The war also drew more distinctly the lines between the 
three sections of the country. The North, having taken to 
manufacturing, realized that a protective tariff was necessary 
for its growing industries, especially since foreign goods were 
shipped in large quantities into the country after the war. 
The West, because of certain products which it could sell to 
the manufacturers, also encouraged a protective tariff. The 
South, however, having less to gain from manufacturing indus- 
tries than the North, preferred free foreign importations, which 
afforded cheaper manufactures than those produced in this 
country. 

394. The Tariff of 1816. The first tariff act, the main object 
of which was protection, was passed in 1816. It imposed a duty 
of about twenty-five per cent on imported cotton and woolen 



312 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STxVTES 

goods and a specific duty on salt and iron. This tariff had its 
supporters, led by John C. Calhoun, who was still a strong 
advocate of nationalization; it also had its opponents, led by 
Daniel Webster, who represented the New England shipping 
interests, and by John Kandolph, the champion of the agri- 
cultural South. 

It will be remembered that the act for raising revenue, passed 
at Hamilton's suggestion in 1789, had for one of its objects the 
protection of manufactures. However, at that time rates were 
low and the tariff was not sufficient to build up young indus- 
tries. In fact, the country was not in a condition to engage 
extensively in manufacturing. 

We see here a beginning of the cause for a division in the 
Democratic-Republican party. This party was gradually 
changing its views. It saw that a strict construction of the 
Constitution could not always be followed, as shown in the 
Louisiana Purchase and the rechartering of the national bank, 
and so the Democratic-Republicans began more and more to 
favor nationalization and to adopt many of the principles of 
the old Federalist party. 

395. The Barbary States Again. The Barbary States, hav- 
ing for seven years faithfully complied with the terms of the 
treaty effected during Jefferson's administration, began during 
the war of 1812 to repeat their outrages on our merchantmen 
cruising in the Mediterranean. They again captured many of 
our vessels and made slaves of the crews. Consequently, after 
peace (1815) had been declared with England, Commodore 
Stephen Decatur captured two of the pirates ' ships near Gib- 
raltar, and then scouring the Algerian coast, forced the Dey 
of Algiers to release our sailors and to pay for damage done 
to our commerce. Decatur next proceeded to Tripoli and 
Tunis and forced both of these powers to come to terms. The 
Barbary States have never since molested our shipping, 

396. The United States Bank Rechartered. Jefferson's party 
had bitterly opposed Hamilton's bank, hence it failed to be 



JAMES Madison's administration 313 

rechartered when its first twenty years' charter had expired 
(1811). Therefore, only state banks were in existence during 
the war and the paper money which they issued, owing to poor 
management, decreased greatly in value, and as no one knew 
the exact value of the money in use, business suffered. At 
Madison's suggestion, Congress re-established a United States 
bank, again chartering it for twenty years, and giving it all 
the powers of Hamilton's bank, and with three times as large 
a capital. 

397. New States. Two new states were added to the Union 
during Madison's administration. Louisiana, the eighteenth 
state, was admitted with slavery (1812). Indiana, the nine- 
teenth state of the Union, and the second one formed out of 
the Northwest Territory, was admitted (1816) as a free state. 



CHAPTER XXI 

JAMES MONEOE'S ADMINISTEATION 
DEMOCRATIC-REPUBLICAN— 1817-1825 

398. Monroe and Tompkins Are Elected. At the presiden- 
tial election held in the autumn of 1816, James Monroe of 
Virginia was elected as the fifth President, with Daniel B. 
Tompkins of New York as Vice-president. Since the Fed- 
eralist party was now practically extinct, there was but little 
party strife in the country; in fact, Monroe might be looked 
upon as a representative of the people, rather than of the 
Republican party. A general good will prevailed, and even 
Jefferson and John Adams forgot past differences and renewed 
their friendship of earlier days. Accordingly, this presidency 
is knoAvn in history as the "era of good feeling." Monroe took 
the oath of office and gave his inaugural address at Washing- 
ton, near the ruins of the capitol. 

Monroe (1758-1831) M^as the last of the Revolutionary heroes 
to be president. In ability and accomplishments, he cannot be 
compared with any one of the first four presidents. He was a 
plain, honest citizen, possessing the confidence of the masses 
of the people, and was a man well fitted to lead the nation in 
the peaceful times upon which it was about to enter. In the 
public service, Monroe had been a soldier in the Revolution, a 
United States Senator, twice an envoy to France, minister to 
London, governor of Virginia, and finally Secretary of State 
during the previous administration. His Cabinet was the 
ablest since Washington's time. Secretary of State John 
Quincy Adams had been one of the negotiators of the treaty 
of Ghent, and Secretary of War John C. Calhoun had been the 
champion of the war party of 1812. Jefferson at Monticello 

314 



JAMES Monroe's administration 315 

and Madison at Montpelier, though they lived in retirement, 
were also influential advisers of Monroe. 

399. Monroe's Tour. Monroe was pre-eminently a peace- 
maker, and shortly after his election made a tour of the north- 
ern states, where he received everywhere a most enthusiastic 
welcome. In New England the sight of the President, clad 
in the uniform of the Revolution, vividly recalled the scenes 
of the war. People forgot their political differences and 
hatreds ; even the Federalists of the Hartford Convention and 
the aged John Adams were among the thousands who honored 
the President, and joyfully declared that the "era of good 
feeling" had begun. This visit of the President to the northern 
states did much toward breaking down sectional lines and unit- 
ing the country. 

400. War with the Seminoles. Florida, still in the hands of 
Spain, caused both the United States and the mother country 
much trouble. There were in this territory a great many run- 
away slaves, pirates, and robbers. These, joining the Seminole 
Indians, kept up a constant warfare against the whites of 
Georgia and Alabama. At length, Andrew Jackson, in com- 
mand of the forces of the South, was sent (1817) by our gov- 
ernment to put a stop to these outrages. He promptly entered 
Florida; drove the Seminoles from place to place, and cap- 
tured the Spanish forts, St. Marks and Pensacola, which gave 
them shelter. Jackson's task was not an easy one. The In- 
dians and negroes sought refuge in the swamps and thickets 
of Florida, but the hardy Indian fighter used vigorous meas- 
ures, even hanging two British traders who had incited the 
savages to hostilities. Spain protested against Jackson's course 
of action, which was also violently criticized in Congress and by 
the Cabinet. Calhoun proposed that Jackson be court-martialed, 
but matters were finally adjusted by the purchase of Florida. 

401. Treaties with England and Spain. A treaty with Great 
Britain, signed in London (1818), provided that the fishermen 
of the United States could fish on the shores of British America 



316 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and enter its harbors either to procure water and fuel, or to 
repair their vessels and find shelter. 

The treaty of 1818 provided that the disputed region lying 
between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean should 
be jointly occupied by both countries. At the same time the 
northern boundary was fixed as the 49° N. L. from the Lake of 
the Woods to the Rocky Mountains. 

A two-fold treaty was negotiated with Spain (1819), by 
which the United States purchased Florida from that country 
for the sum of five million dollars, and the boundary line of 
the Louisiana territory to the southwest and west was fixed. 
To Spain was apportioned the territory west of the Sabine River, 
and to the United States the Oregon country, thus strength- 
ening her existing claim. The part allotted to Spain had pre- 
viously been claimed by the United States. It comprised the 
present State of Texas. The boundary line to the southwest 
and west was fixed as follows : the Sabine River from its 
mouth to the thirty-second parallel north latitude, thence due 
north to the Red River ; up the Red River to the one-hundredth 
meridian ; north on this meridian to the Arkansas River ; up 
the Arkansas to its source ; thence due north to the forty-second 
parallel; and westward on this parallel to the Pacific. 

402. The Cumberland Highway. The power of the Indians 
of both the Northwest and the Southwest was now broken 
and the vast fertile West was open to immigration. Thousands 
of people, especially from New England, began to move west- 
ward. The farther west they pressed, the greater became the 
difficulties of transportation and communication. Steamboats 
and ferryboats were, it is true, already plying the rivers, but 
all kinds of goods had to be transported over wide stretches 
of country through which flowed no navigable rivers. The 
westward-moving emigrants needed a roadway to connect the 
East aiid the West. The western frontiersmen were anxious 
to exchange products, such as potash, lumber, flour, skins, and 
grain for the hardware, clothing, household goods, and farm- 



JAMKS Monroe's administration 



317 



ing implements of the Atlantic states. People living in the 
towns and cities along the seaboard also wanted to get their 
mail more frequently and have their freight forwarded with 
greater dispatch. To satisfy the pressing demands of the 
times, a great national highway, called the Cumberland Road, 
was built by the United States government. It extended from 
Cumberland, on the Potomac (Maryland) to Wheeling on the 
Ohio (Ohio), at which point connection could be made with 
steamboats running to Cincinnati or even to New Orleans. 
Later the road was continued as far as Illinois, but the build- 
ing of railroads made its farther extension unnecessary. The 







'.;..'.Ti'c'oMpl.ErEb 'Aii;'i.^v-V;.:.- 
;-- PROPOSED v,^%i^fi 



THE CUMBERLAND NATIONAL ROAD 



National Road, or the Cumberland Highway, was a turnpike 
road, paved with stone, covered with gravel, and averaging 
eighty-five feet in width. Along this broad, solid, smooth road, 
which wound up the rocky sides of mountains, and across deep 
chasms, long processions of emigrant wagons and pack-horses 
proceeded slowly on their way toward the Ohio, into the wild 
western country which is now covered with prosperous farms 
and thriving towns. 

The marvelous development of the West is without a parallel 
in history. It was given additional impulse by the great tide 
of foreign immigration which, during the years 1815-1848, in- 



318 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



creased the population of the United States by more than two 
million. 

403. New States. Largely as a result of this development 
of the West, five new states were admitted in five consecutive 
years during Monroe 's administration : Mississippi, the twen- 
tieth, as a slave state (1817) ; Illinois, the twenty-first, as a 
free state (1818) ; Alabama, the twenty-second, as a slave state 
(1819) ; Maine, the twenty-third, as a free state (1820) ; Mis- 
souri, the twenty-fourth, as a slave state (1821). The last 



r 




CHICAGO IN 1^-0 



eight new states were admitted to the Union alternately as 
slaveholding and non-slaveholding states. This entering in 
pairs was not accidental, but intentionally arranged, so as not 
to disturb the balance of power in the Senate. 

404. Slavery — The Missouri Compromise. The long contest 
over a strong or weak national government had been fairly 
settled and the "era of good feeling" seemingly still prevailed 
when, suddenly, was heard, as Jefferson said, "like a fire-bell 
at night," a question which had silently divided the Union and 
threatened to dissolve it — the question of slavery — which was 



JAMES Monroe's administration 319 

to disturb the country for the next forty years and was to be 
settled only by the sword. 

By the Ordinance of 1787 slavery was prohibited north of 
the Ohio. Necessarily, the admission of Missouri was pre- 
ceded by violent debates in Congress. Should Missouri be ad- 
mitted as a free or as a slave state? Upon the decision of 
that question practically depended the fate of slavery and 
freedom throughout the Louisiana Purchase. At length, Con- 
gress passed a bill, introduced by Henry Clay, and known as 
the Missouri Compromise (1820). It decided that Missouri 
should be admitted as a slave state, but that in all the rest 
of the Louisiana Purchase, slavery should not exist north of 
36° 30' north latitude. This famous compromise line, which 
eventually became to the West what the Mason and Dixon's 
line was to the East, postponed the final struggle over slavery 
for over thirty years. 

405. Liberia Founded. According to the Constitution the 
importation of slaves was prohibited by Congress after January 
1, 1808, but illegal importations were still made. Finally, in 
1820, the slave trade was declared to be piracy, the penalty of 
which was death. The slavery question gave rise (1816) to the 
formation of the American Colonization Society, which had for 
its object the encouraging of the emancipation and the pro- 
viding of homes for the freed slaves. The government as- 
sisted it by handing over to the society slaves captured while 
in course of illegal importation. Subsequently, a negro re- 
public, called Liberia, was founded (1822) on the western 
coast of Africa in which the freed slaves could enjoy the rights 
of self-government. 

406. The Monroe Doctrine. The Spanish-American colonies 
in South and Central America and Mexico, encouraged by the 
example of the United States, had rebelled and made good 
their independence of the mother country (1822). Russia, 
Prussia, France, and Austria had formed a league, termed 
the Holy Alliance, to maintain one another's rights and 



320 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

privileges. The United States feared the interference of 
these powers. Eussia had issued a decree forbidding all 
foreigners to approach within one hundred miles of the 
American coasts north of the fifty-first parallel. It seemed 
that Eussia was intent on preventing the United States 
from possessing any territory on the Pacific coast. The 
English minister proposed that Great Britain and the 
United States join in opposing the Holy Alliance. But 
Monroe, wisely acting on Adams's advice, politely declined 
the English minister's ofi'er, and in a celebrated message to 
Congress (1823), later known as the Monroe Doctrine, de- 
clared : 
(a) that the United States would take no part in European 

wars ; 
(&) that the United States would not interfere with any Euro- 
pean colony already established ; 

(c) that the United States would regard as an unfriendly act 

any attempt by a European nation to gain dominion in 
America ; 

(d) that North and South America were no longer open to 

colonization by European powers. 

Before the war of 1812, Europe would have been amused 
at such a declaration, but now it was taken seriously, and as 
a result projects of European intervention were at once aban- 
doned ; Great Britain, like the United States, recognized the 
independence of the Spanish-American republics ; and Eus- 
sia made a treaty (1824), giving up her claim to the Pacific 
coast as far as Alaska or the latitude 54° 40'. 

407. Lafayette Is the Guest of the Nation. In 1824, the 
Marquis Lafayette, then an old man, revisited the United States 
as the nation's guest, in response to an invitation of Congress. 
The people, remembering his disinterested services during the 
Eevolution, welcomed him with enthusiasm. The venerable 
Frenchman visited every one of the twenty-four states which 
then composed the Union and beheld with wonder the gi- 



JAMES Monroe's administration 321 

gantie strides the eoiintry had taken toward wealth and pros- 
perity. He stood with reverent atifeetion at the tomb of Wash- 
ington, and laid the cornerstone of the Bnnker Hill monnment 
on the spot where Warren had fallen fifty years before. He 
was finally borne home in the national ship, Brandijwine, so 
named in honor of Lafayette's first battle in the cause of 
Amei'ican freedom. 

408. The Tariff Law of 1824. The tariff law of 1816 had not 
produced satisfactory results. Consequently, another act was 
passed (1824), increasing the duties on iron, wool, and hemp, 
and also, though in a less degree, on woolen goods ; this tar- 
iff averaged thirty-seven per cent ; the tariff of 1816 had aver- 
aged twenty-five per cent. 

Clay once more came forward as the champion of the pro- 
tective system, which, as he said, "would create a home mar- 
ket and lay the foundation of a genuine American policy." 
Webster opposed the measure as he had done in 1816, declar- 
ing "freedom of trade to be the general principle, and re- 
striction the exception."' 

The South violently protested against the tariff, declaring 
that it was of no benefit to them and profitable to two classes 
only — the agriculturists of the West and the manufacturers 
of the North. The South, being an agricultural section and 
having no factories, held that high tariff diminished foreign 
trade and consequently injured the market for their cotton 
in Europe, and also compelled them to pay higher prices for 
the goods they were obliged to buy. 

The West greatly favored the law, arguing that the en- 
couraging of manufacturing in the East would give it markets 
near at hand for its surplus products, and that the revenues 
resulting from the tariff would enable the government to con- 
struct new means of transportation across the Alleghanies. 

The North, of course, supported the tariff, because it pre- 
vented the sale of foreign goods at a lower price than those 
produced at home. As a result, the votes of the western, 



322 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

middle, and eastern states overruled those of the South, and 
the bill was passed. 

409. Indian Missions. The Catholic Indian missions on the 
Mississippi had been revived by Bishop Dubourg of New 
Orleans. The Jesuits opened a school for Indian boys at 
Florissant, Missouri (1824), near the junction of the Missouri 
and Mississippi rivers, where the Ladies of the Sacred Heart 
had already established a school for Indian girls. Among the 
Jesuits at Florissant was Father John De Smet, one of sev- 
eral young Belgians who had come to the United States. He 
devoted the whole of his life to the Indian missions. His ex- 
traordinary career recalled the heroic days of Jogues and 
Breboeuf, and merited for him the title "Apostle of the Kocky 
Mountains," just as the princely Father Gallitzin received 
the title "Apostle of the Alleghanies." 



CHAPTER XXII 

JOHN QUINCY ADAMS'S ADMINISTKATIOM 
NATIONAL-REPUBLICAN— 1825-1829 

410. Adams and Calhoun Are Elected. The presidential 
election of 1824 found four candidates in the field — John 
Qnincy Adams, Henry Clay, William Crawford, and Andrew- 
Jackson — all Republicans or Democrats, at that time synony- 
mous terms. No one received a majority of the electoral votes. 
Jackson had ninety-nine electoral votes, Adams eighty-four, 
Crawford, forty-one, and Henry Clay, thirty-seven. Accord- 
ingly, for the second time in the history of the United States, 
the election went to the House of Representatives. The House 
chose for the presidency, John Quincy Adams of Massachu- 
setts. John C. Calhoun was elected Vice-president. 

Henry Clay used his powerful influence for the election 
of John Quincy Adams, because he believed him to be best 
qualified for the position. Adams, subsequently, made Clay 
Secretary of State, whereupon it was promptly charged that 
Clay had bargained to support Adams in return for a prom- 
ise of appointment to the office of Secretary of State. Within 
a few days, Jackson's adherents published abroad the asser- 
tion that there had been a "corrupt bargain" between the two 
men. Both Adams and Clay denied the charge, and it is fair 
to say that there was no truth in it. The slanderous charge 
of the "corrupt bargain," however, followed Clay all his life 
and greatly injured the policy of Adams. The Jacksonians 
boldly claimed that Jackson had been deprived of the presi- 
dency by a trick. They furthermore held that, as Jackson 
had received more votes than any other candidate, the House 
should have respected the popular will and chosen him. It 

323 



324 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

was evident that the "era of good feeling" was over and that 
Adams would little enjoy the high office he had attained. 

John Qnincy Adams (1767-1848) was the eldest son of the 
nation's second President, John Adams. He was a statesman 
of great ability, having been schooled from his youth in pub- 
lic affairs. He had been a United States Senator, Minister 
to Russia and to Great Britain, and Secretary of State under 
Monroe. He was noted for his broad-mindedness, untiring 
labor, and uprightness of purpose — all excellent qualities for 
an ideal president. He was, however, severe in his criticism 
of others and seemed never willing to take advice. Hence, 
he could not become a successful administrator. Besides, he 
was bitterly opposed by personal and political enemies, es- 
pecially the Jacksonians, who sought in every possible way 
to make him odious to the public. Naturally, his presidency, 
like that of his father, was, on the whole, a failure. 

411. Three Great Problems — Political Parties. The ruining 
of the Federalist party by the Alien and Sedition Laws and 
the Hartford Convention left the Democratic-Republican the 
only political party during Monroe's administration. New 
problems began to present themselves and ultimately led to a 
difference of political views on the following questions: 
(fl) should internal improvements be made by Congress, at 

national expense? 
{!)) is the true policy of the country a tariff' for revenue only, 
or a tariff for the protection of home industries? 

The advocates of a protective tariff, and of internal im- 
provements at national expense, gathered around Adams and 
Clay as leaders, and called themselves National Republicans, 
because they sought to increase the power of the national 
government. They were, in a general way, the descendants 
of the Federalist party. 

Another party, the stronger in number, the old Democratic- 
Republicans, gathered around Andrew Jackson, under the name 
of Democrats. They advocated a low tariff, and internal im- 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS S ADMINISTRATION 



325 



provements at the expense of the respective states, and may 
be considered as representing Jefferson's party. 

The National Republicans held that Congress should make 
internal improvements at the expense of the whole people ; 
the Democrats argued that, since limited areas, only, were 
benefited by roads, and canals, the people of these limited 
areas (private companies and individual states) should bear 
the expense. The National Republicans urged that the tar- 
iff' duties should be placed so high that foreign goods could 
not compete with domestic manufacturers. This, they argued, 
would keep our mills and factories busy, afford high wages 




THE ERIE CANAL 



to the laborers, and make the country prosperous and inde- 
pendent of foreign markets. The Democrats claimed that 
the people should be allowed to buy their goods where they 
could get them the cheapest. 

412. The Erie Canal. The eastern markets, beholding with 
alarm how the New Orleans steamboats distributed European 
goods to the Western settlers, demanded of Congress that it 
build canals between the East and the West. Congress, how- 
ever, felt that it did not have the right under the Constitu- 
tion to do this. Meanwhile, the various states were making 
internal improvements at their own expense. The most notable 
of these was the Erie Canal, a stupendous undertaking by 



326 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



the state of New York. The canal was constructed under the 
leadership of DeWitt Clinton. This important waterway, be- 
gun in 1817, and completed during Adams's administration 
(1825), extended from Buffalo on Lake Erie, to Albany on 
the Hudson. It was three hundred and sixty-three miles long, 
forty feet wide, and four feet (later seven) deep. 

The building of the Erie Canal had far-reaching results: it 
became the great commercial highway between the East and 
the West ; it reduced the transportation charges nearly ten- 
fold ; and helped to make New York the leading commercial 




EARLY RAILROAD 



city of America and gave rise to other numerous flourishing 
cities along its course. 

413. Roads — Canals — Railroads. Pennsylvania, unwilling 
that New York should have all the Western trade, built a chain 
of canals and roads between Pittsburg and Philadelphia. Balti- 
more also tried to improve her connections with the West. Sev- 
eral western states started to build canals, but before many 
of them were finished the first railroads came into use and 
formed new and better means of transportation. 

The first passenger railroad (1827) extended from Balti- 
more to Ellicott's Mills, a distance of about thirteen miles. 
This road afterwards became a part of the Baltimore and 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 327 

Ohio Railroad. The cars on the track resembled huge wagons 
on wooden rails, and were drawn by horses. The horses were 
soon displaced (1831) by steam engines, which ran at the 
then rapid rate of fifteen miles an hour. .The venerable Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton, ninety-one years of age (1827), the only 
surviving signer of the Declaration of Independence, turned 
with a firm hand the first spadeful of earth which began the 
construction of the celebrated Baltimore and Ohio Railroad. 
When the ceremony was over, he exclaimed, "I consider this 
one of the most important acts of my life, second only to the 
signing of the Declai-ation of Independence." 

414. Foreign Relations. Adams and Clay were fortunate 
in concluding a number of good commercial treaties, but failed 
to secure the important trade of the British West Indian ports 
because they did not comply in time with certain demands of 
Creat Britain. 

A Congress of all the American republics was held at 
Panama, in response to an invitation by General Simon Bolivar 
of Venezuela. Adams was anxious to have the interests of 
the United States represented at the convention ; Congress, 
however, refused to vote the funds necessary for sending dele- 
gates to Panama. The negro republic of Haiti had also been 
invited, but our slave owners disliked the idea of sitting at 
table with the free negroes of Haiti ; they feared the influence 
of the example of the black republic on their slaves. 

415. The Tariff of Abominations — The Albany Junto. Many 
manufacturers, claiming that the tariff of 1824 did not give 
them sufficient protection, especially on woolen goods, de- 
manded higher tariff rates. A bill was therefore prepared 
which increased the duties on certain raw articles to a ridicu- 
lously high figure. This bill passed both Houses of Congress 
(1828), and is known as the "Tariff of Abominations." The 
duty on wool, for example, was raised from about thirty to 
about seventy per cent, and that on hemp from thirty-five to 
sixty dollars per ton. 



328 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The tariff of 1828 was intended by the Jaeksonians to make 
Adams unpopular. Randolph fittingly said that this tariff 
bill referred to manufacturers of no sort or kind except the 
manufacture of a President of the United States. A clique, 
known as the Albany Junto, and composed of Jaeksonians, 
with Martin Van Buren of New York as leader, devised a 
scheme by which, under pretext of favoring a high protec- 
tive tariff measure, it might defeat the bill and at the same 
time win the supporters of Adams for Jackson's cause. An 
enormous duty was laid on raw materials, most of which were 
produced in the West. The schemers argued that manufac- 
turers, thus finding their gains neutralized, would become en- 
raged and join the South, which was antagonistic to the tariff 
measures, in opposing the bill. Jackson would thus keep the 
votes of the South and, still seeming friendly to the West, also 
secure many northern votes. As one historian says, ''They 
wanted to kill Adams with the bill, and then kill the bill." 
But they could not "kill the bill," and, much to the dis- 
may of the plotters, it was passed, abominations and all, on 
the strength of the votes of Adams's men. The latter thought 
it was better than no bill at all, and that it might in time 
be changed. 

416. Protests Against the Tariff— National Authority De- 
fied. In 1816, John C. Calhoun favored a protective tariff to 
encourage domestic industry, while Daniel Webster opposed 
it as hostile to the shipping interests of his state. Now, how- 
ever, Webster advocated protection and Calhoun opposed it. 
Five of the southern states protested against the Tariff Bill. 
Calhoun, as the champion of this movement, suggested that 
the state of South Carolina hold a convention which would 
declare the act "null and void within the limits of the state." 
In the words of one historian, the "ghosts of the Kentucky 
and Virginia resolutions seemed to be re-appearing." Web- 
ster feared that a new confederacy would be established in 
the South. Matters stood still for a while, however. All par- 



JOHN QUINCY ADAMS 'S ADMINISTRATION 329 

ties were waiting to see what stand the new President would 
take concerning the tariff. 

The people of Georgia attempted to remove the Creek and 
Cherokee Indians from the state. Both of these partly civ- 
ilized tribes were settled on permanent farms, and enjoyed by 
treaty with the United States a tribal government. They 
therefore owed no allegiance to Georgia. President Adams 
objected to Georgia's course of action, and attempted to pro- 
tect the rights of the Indians, whereupon Governor Troup of 
Georgia promptly called out the state militia to resist the 
United States troops. Congress was rather pleased at the 
humiliation of the President and declined to support him. 
Hence, Adams was obliged to yield to this state's defiance of 
national authority. These two instances of South Carolina and 
Georgia are evidences of the fact that the spirit of nationalism, 
which had been powerful, was now declining. 

417. Semi-Centennial of American Independence. The fif- 
tieth anniversary of American Independence was celebrated 
on July 4, 1826. On that day, also, John Adams and Thomas 
Jefferson died at their widely separated homes in Massachu- 
setts and Virginia. Jefferson had written the Declaration of 
Independence and Adams had done more than any other man 
to secure its adoption ; each had signed it ; each had served 
as foreign minister, Vice-president, and President. 

418. Adams's Administration but a Long-drawn Campaign. 
The administration of John Quincy Adams was little more 
than a long-drawn and passionate presidential campaign pre- 
paratory to the election of Jackson and was characterized by 
slander, gross abuse, and political intrigue. Free traders, high 
protectionists, states' rights men, strong bank men, and anti- 
bank men — all supported Jackson, whose views on these points 
were unknown. "Hurrah for Jackson — turn the rascals out!" 
was the rude cry of the campaign of 1828. Adams's friends 
urged him to use his influence and authority toward his re- 
election. But the President nobly refused, declaring that he 



330 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

would not use the public patronage to further his political 
fortunes. In so doing he gave one of those rare examples 
where the office seeks the man and not the man the office. The 
Jacksonians, many of whom were only office-seekers, felt that 
their hero would stand by them and eventually reward them 
for the work they were doing for him. Adams, after his term 
of office had expired, entered Congress (1831) as a Representa- 
tive from Massachusetts. In this position he showed great 
ability and eloquence and won his true laurels, esi)ecially as 
a fearless anti-slavery champion, which merited for him the 
title of "Old Man Eloquent." He was stricken with apoplexy 
at his post in tlu' capitol and died (1848) after having been 
in high public service for tifty-three years. 



CHAPTER XXIII 

ANDEEW JACKSON'S ADMINISTEATION 
DEMOCRAT— 1829-1837 

419. Jackson and Calhoun Are Elected. At the election of 
1828, as liad been foreseen, Jackson, the Democratic candidate, 
was trimnphantly elected President. He received nearly twice 
as many votes as John Quincy Adams, the National Republican 
nominee. Calhoun was re-elected Vice-president. 

Heretofore the Presidents, all statesmen of high rank, rep- 
resenting the culture and refinement of the seaboard, had been 
chosen from the aristocratic states of Virginia and Massachu- 
setts. Now, for tlie first time, a man of humble birth and of 
little culture, sat in the White House. Andrew Jackson 
(1767-184.5) was a rough and ready backM^oodsman and a 
hardy Indian fighter. Born in the Carolina backwoods, and 
left alone in the world at fifteen, he grew up amid the alarms 
and hostilities of the Revolution. Later, he made his way to 
tliat part of Carolina now known as Tennessee, and with a little 
knowledge of law began practice at the bar. He distinguished 
himself as a soldier, became a national hero in the war against 
the Creeks (1812), served as territorial governor of Florida, 
and became respectively a United States Representative and 
Senator from Tennessee. The great popularity gained in his 
battles with the Indians and his wonderful endurance of hard- 
ships, won for him the affectionate nickname of "Old Hick- 
ory." Though uncouth in looks, unconventional in dress and 
manners, uneducated, self-confident and headstrong, he was, 
nevertheless, noted for generosity of heart, uprightness of 
mind, absolute honesty, and utter fearlessness. While hating 
his enemies intensely, he Avas devotedly attached to his friends, 

331 



332 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and even so blind to their faults that, at times, he uncon- 
sciously became the instrument through which unprincipled 
office and money seekers accomplished their schemes. 

Jackson's Cabinet was a weak oue, composed for the most 
part of very ordinary men. Martin Van Buren, Secretary of 
State, was the only man of ability and reputation appointed 
to a seat in the Cabinet at the opening of the administration. 
The personnel of the Cabinet, however, was a matter of little 
consequence, since Jackson dominated the entire government. 
He rarely consulted his Cabinet, as he preferred the advice of 
a few intimate friends, whom the newspapers of the time called 
his "Kitchen Cabinet." 

420. A New Era of American History. The election of 
Andrew Jackson to the presidency opened a new era in Amer- 
ican history. The Democratic spirit of the West and South, 
which now triumphed over the aristocratic spirit of the East, 
placed the reins of government in the hands of the plain peo- 
ple. In fact, the national period was in reality just begin- 
ning. NeAv issues, such as the tariff, the United States Bank, 
the Indians, internal improvements, and particularly slavery, 
now took the place of the old colonial problems of representa- 
tion, taxation, commercial regulations, etc. Nearly all of the 
older statesmen, the framers of the Constitution and the organ- 
izers of the government, as also their associates, had passed 
away. The leading men of this political era with Jackson 
were Martin Van Buren, the shrewd politician, Henry Clay, 
the father of tlu^ American protective system, and John C. 
Calhoun and Daniel Webster, the great expounders of the 
Constitution. 

421. Notable Facts. Jackson's presidency will be remem- 
bered in history for three things : the introduction of the Spoils 
System, the crushing of Nullification in South Carolina, and 
the discontinuance of the United States Bank. Jackson's 
political views at the time of his election were not known even 
by his supporters. It soon became evident, however, that the 




ANDRKW .7ACKSON JOHN C. CALHOUN 

STEPHEN A. DOUGLAS HENRV CCAY 

National and State Rights Leaders 



ANDREW JACKSON 'S ADMINISTRATION 883 

new President favored strict eonstnietion of the (Constitution, 
and therefore opposed internal improvement at national expense, 
protective tariffs, and the United States Baidc. 

422. The Spoils System. No sooner was Jackson inangn- 
rated than crowds of his supporters hastened to Washington to 
receive their reward. Jackson, believing that "to the victors 
belong the spoils," promptly introduced the so-called "spoils 
system." The old officials who belonged to the defeated party 
were turned out and their places filled with men belonging 
to the successful party. During the first year of his presi- 
dency Jackson removed more officials than his six predecessors 
had removed in forty years. Thus began the corrupt system, 
called "rotation in office." It is only just, however, to say 
that Jackson was desirous of appointing only men of ability, 
although he was frequently misled in his selection through the 
advice of friends. Consequently, a large number of political 
frauds and scandals marked his administration, though he 
himself was absolutely honest. 

423. The Webster-Hayne Debate. While the topics of tariff 
and nullification were being widely and violently discussed, one 
of the greatest debates in our annals took place in the United 
States Senate (1830) ]>etween Robert Hayne, the spokesman 
of Calhoun (the champion of the South) and Daniel Webster 
of Massachusetts. Hayne, presenting Calhoun's theory of 
states' rights, declared in a brilliant speech that the Constitu- 
tion was a mere compact formed by sovereign states, and that, 
accordingly, a state might withdraw from the compact when- 
ever it saw fit to do so and might declare an act of Congress 
null and void in case it thought that the government had 
exceeded its powers. Webster, in a speech classed among the 
greatest of the world's orations, replied that the Constitution, 
was not a mere compact, but the "supreme law of the people 
and answerable to the people"; hence, that no state had the 
right to withdraw from the Union ; neither could any state 
nullify an act of Congress on the ground that such act was 



334 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

unconstitutional, since it belonged to the Supreme Court, and 
not to the state courts, to decide the constitutionality of the 
acts of Congress. 

It was indeed a proud hour for the nation when Webster 
with his manly form and commanding voice, arose to address 
the Senate and its overflowing crowd. His closing words, 
"Liberty and Union now and forever, one and inseparable," 
which rang through the hall, have rung throughout the land 
to the present day. The debate won for Webster the title of 
"Defender of the Constitution." 

424. The South Carolina Nullification Act. The "tariff of 
abominations" had brought South Carolina, led by Calhoun, 
to the verge of rebellion and secession. The state was but 
waiting to see what the new administration would do. Though 
Congress (1832), in revising the tariff of 1828, slightly low^- 
ered the rates, it also recognized the protective tariff system, 
w^hich now, more than ever, promised to fasten itself perma- 
nently upon the nation. South Carolina, therefore, promptly 
passed the Nullification Act, which declared that the tariff 
acts of 1828 and 1832, being "null, void, and no law," were 
not binding upon the states or their citizens, and threatened 
to leave the Union in case the Federal government attempted 
to enforce the acts. This Nullification Act was to go into effect 
February 1, 1833. 

Enraged by South Carolina's high-handed action, the iron- 
willed President promptly sent General Scott and two war 
vessels to the port of Charleston and ordered the revenue com- 
missioners at that port to collect the duties on imports under 
the protection of a military force. He furthermore issued a 
proclamation which declared that the Constitution did not 
form a compact, but a government ; that nullification was 
unconstitutional and revolutionary ; and that he would enforce 
the laws without fear or favor. 

The South Carolina leaders knew that Jackson was not in 
favor of liigli tariff* duties and hoped to win him for their 



ANDREW Jackson's administration 335 

cause. In this, however, they were greatly disappointed. 
Jackson, in a bold declaration that the laws of the United 
States must be executed, said : ' ' My duty is emphatically pro- 
nounced in the Constitution; those who told you that you 
might peaceably prevent their execution deceived you — their 
object is disunion, and disunion by armed force is treason." 

425. The Force Bill — Clay's Compromise Tariff. Upon Jack- 
son's request, Congress enacted a so-called Force Bill, which 
gave the President power, if necessary, to use the army and 
navy for the purpose of enforcing revenue laws. A heated 
debate at once ensued, in which Calhoun, speaking for the 
South, maintained that a state had the right to nullify acts of 
Congress and to secede from the Union; while Webster, speak- 
ing for the North, denied the right of nullification and seces- 
sion, and upheld the Union and the Constitution. 

Meanwhile Henry Clay, to avoid force of arms, introduced 
(1833) a compromise tariff measure, by which tariff rates were 
to be reduced gradually for ten years (until July, 1842), from 
which time there should be on all imported articles a duty 
equal to twenty per cent of their value. The Force Bill and 
Clay's Compromise Tariff passed Congress at the same time. 
South Carolina was satisfied and repealed her nullification 
ordinances. Clay, on being told that his action with regard 
to the compromise tariff would injure his prospects for the 
presidency, replied, "I would rather be right than be 
President." 

426. Jackson and the Bank. Jackson, like most other Demo- 
crats, believed that the United States Bank was unconstitu- 
tional; that it enriched its managers at the expense of the 
people ; that it had grown corrupt and dangerous to the free- 
dom of the country ; and that it used its powerful influence in 
politics. 

In one respect the Bank was advantageous to the people 
inasmuch as the money paid the government was not with- 
drawn from circulation. But this advantage was overbalanced 



336 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

by the fear that the Bank might at any time exercise its great 
power in politics, wliieh it actually did in 1832, when it used 
money to oppose the re-election of Jackson. 

Upon Clay's urgent advice, the friends of the Bank now 
(1832) brought matters to a crisis by introducing into Congress 
a bill to recharter it for twenty years longer, though the old 
charter would not expire till 1836. After a heated discussion, 
lasting five months, the bill passed both houses of Congress. 
Jackson, however, promptly vetoed it, giving as reasons that 
it was an "unnecessary, useless, expensive, un-American mon- 
opoly, always hostile to the interest of the people, and pos- 
sibly dangerous to the government as well." Naturally, the 
campaign cry for 1832 was "Jackson or the Bank." 

427. Jackson Is Re-elected — He Withdraws the Government 
Deposits. Jackson was re-elected President (1832) by an over- 
whelming majority over Henry Clay, the great leader of the 
National Republicans. Martin Van Buren of New York was 
chosen Vice-president. The presidential campaign of 1832 
gave rise to our first national conventions and party platforms 
(written statements of party views). Before this, presidential 
candidates were named by a congressional caucus or by state 
legislatures. The Anti-Masonic party, w'hose aim was to keep 
Freemasons out of office, really originated our national conven- 
tions. It met and named William Wirt for President (1831). 
This party carried only the state of Vermont and soon after 
disappeared. The National Republicans next met in conven- 
tion and unanimously nominated Henry Clay for the presi- 
dency. They made the first platform ever issued. It declared 
that the party favored protection of American industries, in- 
ternal improvements, and a United States Bank, and denounced 
the Spoils System, or practice of turning men out of office for 
political purposes. The nominees of the Democratic conven- 
tion were, as we have seen, Jackson for the presidency, and 
Van Buren for the vice-presidency. 

Jackson, regarding his re-election as an approval of his anti- 



ANDREW Jackson's administration 837 

bank policy, determined to give the Bank a final blow. He 
promptly ordered (1833) the Secretary of the Treasnry to 
remove the government deposits from the Bank. When the 
Secretary of the Treasury refused to carry out this order, 
Jackson removed him from office. Roger B. Taney, appointed 
in his place, gave orders for the removal of deposits. The gov- 
ernment noM" withdrew its money from the Bank to pay its 
debts, and future deposits, instead of being made in the Na- 
tional Bank, were placed in certain state banks, situated chiefly 
in the South and West. These banks, selected not so much 
for their soundness as for their political influence, came to be 
known as ''pet banks." Meanwhile, state banks, termed 
"wild-cat banks,'" were springing up on every side. Within 
eight years the number increased from three hundred and 
twenty-nine to seven hundred and eighty-eight. Hundreds of 
these, having no capital at all, received deposits, and flooded 
the country with their notes, called "rag money," People 
could now borrow money more easily than ever before. This 
"wild-cat banking" gave rise to even wilder speculation, which 
extended to every branch of trade, especially in the western 
states and territories. Eager to grow rich, people bought gov- 
ernment lands at perhaps a dollar or two an acre. These they 
expected to sell at enormously increased rates, particularly 
if the land was located near imaginary towns laid out in the 
wilderness or along routes of proposed railroads or canals. 
There was a general rise in prices. Everybody was borrowing, 
in order to buy and sell and grow rich. 

428. Jackson's Specie Circular. Jackson became greatly 
alarmed, and deternuned to protect at least the United States 
Treasury against unsound money. Contrary to the advice of 
the Cabinet, he issued (1836) his celebrated "Specie Circular," 
by which he ordered the land agents to receive only gold and 
silver in payment for government land. The effects were imme- 
diate. The great demand for gold and silver created a scarcity 
of this coin. A crash was inevitable, but before it came Jack- 



338 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

son liad retired from office, confident that the "Specie Circular" 
would restore prosperity. 

Jackson's anti-bank actions have been most harshly crit- 
icized ; still we now believe that he did the country a valuable 
service in discontinuing the National Bank, for such a monop- 
oly, absolutely controlling the money of the people, might 
ultimately have proved detrimental to the interests of the 
nation. 

429. Surplus Government Money Loaned to the States. By 
January, 1835, the government had paid all its debts. It was, 
however, collecting about thirty-five million dollars revenue a 
year more than it could reasonably expend, under the strict 
construction of the Constitution, nor could this revenue be 
diminished, according to the Compromise Tariff Act of 1833. 
The "pet banks" had already received about eleven million 
dollars. Acting on the advice of Calhoun, Congress loaned, 
without interest, the surj^lus funds to the states, in proportion 
to their representation. It was not long, however, before the 
financial crash came, and the government was obliged to borrow 
money to pay its current expenses. The money thus loaned 
to the states, and never recalled, was used chiefly in the con- 
struction of public works. 

During the exciting times of the bank discussions, in which 
the President was denounced as tyrannical, and as having dis- 
regarded the Constitution and the laws, the National Repub- 
lican party took the name Whig (1834), the name by which 
the patriots of the Revolution were kiiown. 

430. A Negro Insurrection. During the years of nullifica- 
tion and bank controversies, there arose anti-slavery agitations, 
which were not to cease until slavery was abolished by the 
Civil "War. Nat Turner, a negro slave, headed an insurrection 
at South Hampton Virginia, which resulted in the killing of 
sixty white people and of more than one hundred negroes, 
before it was subdued. This affair greatly amazed the South 
and brought home to them the j^erils always surrounding them. 



ANDREW Jackson's administration 8'W 

431. Anti-Slavery Movement. Benjamin Ijundy, one of the 
early anti-slavery agitators, founded an anti-slavery paper 
(1821) and made anti-slavery speeches throiighont the country. 
On one of his tours through New England he met William Lloyd 
(xarrison, a Boston printer, who had spent some time in the 
South and had come face to face with slavery on its own soil. 
After returning home and hearing Lundy, Garrison established 
an anti-slavery paper, called the "Liberator," in which he 
expressed hostility to slavery. He declared that it should be 
abolished at once, and asserted that it would be better to have 
no Union at all than to have a Union with slavery in one 
section of it. He denounced slavery as "a sin against God 
and a crime against man,'' and said that the Constitution, by 
giving it support, was a "covenant with death and an agree- 
nuMit with hell." But the prevalent sentiment of the North 
at the time was against abolition, not because the North favored 
slavery but because it was feared that the abolition movement 
would imperil the peace of the country. Many people held 
with Webster that it was better to save the Union wath slavery 
than to deliberately destroy it for the sake of giving freedom 
to the negro. 

The influence of Garrison's writings spread rapidly, and 
within a year, hundreds of societies had been formed in the 
North for the purpose of abolishing slavery. They numbered 
among their members the famous Wendell Philips, called the 
"silver-tongued orator," and Theodore Parker, a learned 
preacher who, in burning language, rebuked the advocates of 
slaver3^ Lectures, pamphlets, books, and newspapers propa- 
gated among the people the anti-slavery ideas of the aboli- 
tionists. 

432. The "Gag Law." The abolitionists flooded Congress 
with petitions to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia 
and to discontinue the trade of slaves between the different 
southern states. The southerners, dreading the effects of the 
constant discussions of the slavery topic, passed in the House 



340 A HISTORY OP THE IGNITED STATES 

of Eepresentatives a "gag law," by which all petitions or bills 
relating in any way to the subject of slavery should be laid 
aside without any further action thereon, John Quincy Adams 
denounced the "gag law" before the House as a direct viola- 
tion of the Constitution. Calhoun defending it, declared : "It 
(slavery) has grown with our growth, and strengthened with 
our strength. . . . We will not, cannot, permit it to be de- 
stroyed." On the other hand, Senator Buchanan, of Penn- 
sylvania, warned the Southerners in these words: "The sacred 
right of petition and the cause of the abolitionists must rise, 
or fall, together." The "gag law," nevertheless, continued in 
effect for several years (1836-1844). 

The southern people held that inasmuch as the whole indus- 
trial system of the South was built upon slavery, abolition 
would cause the financial ruin of their section of the Union. 

433. Foreign Affairs. Jackson received great credit for his 
handling of our foreign affairs; in this point he was as suc- 
cessful as Adams had been unsuccessful. A treaty was nego- 
tiated with Great Britain, by which that nation opened her 
West Indian ports to the United States. The French "Spolia- 
tion Claims, ' ' or the claims of the United States against France 
for depredations ui^on American commerce, were vigorously 
pvished, and France paid five million dollars in 1835. Similar 
long-standing claims of the United States against other 
European powers were also settled. 

Before Mexican independence was established, some hun- 
dred American families, under Stephen F. Austin, settled, with 
the consent of Spain, in that part of Mexico which is included 
in the present state of Texas. After Mexico had declared her 
independence of Spain, the Texans, claiming that the Mexican 
government was oppressive, declared their independence. Mex- 
ico immediately declared war. At Fort Alamo, a former Fran- 
ciscan mission house, the Texan garrison was overpowered and 
massacred. Thereafter the rallying cry of Texas was, "Re- 
member the Alamo!" Finally under Samuel Houston, the 



ANDREW JACKSON S ADMINISTRATION 



341 



Texans defeated the Mexicans, under Santa Anna, in the battle 
of San Jacinto; thus Texan independence was secured (1836), 
and was subsequently acknowledged by the United States 
(1837). The boundary line of the new republic, however, was 
not clearly defined. Texas claimed much wid^r territory than 
Mexico would acknowledge. 

434. Indian Wars. Indian wars disturbed the peace of the 
country during a large part of Jackson's administration. The 
Black Hawk War 
(1832), in which the 
Sac and Fox tri])es 
fought under the fa- 
mous chief. Black 
Hawk, broke out in 
what is now Wisconsin. 
The cause of the war 
was, as usual, disputed 
land claims, and tlie re- 
sult was a complete de- 
feat of the Indians, who 
were removed beyond 
the Mississippi. The 
Second Seminole War 
(1834-1842) was caused 
by an attempt to re- 
move the Seminoles and 
Creeks of Florida to the 

region west of the Mississippi. The Indians committed a num- 
ber of massacres. General Thompson and a few companions 
were assassinated while sitting at table. General Winfield 
Scott was then sent against the Indians and Chief Osceola was 
captured. 

Under Colonel Zachary Taylor the war was soon brought to 
an end, and the defeated Seminoles reluctantly took their course 
westward. 




342 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

435. Other Events. A very destructive lire broke out in New 
York City (December, 1835), near the corner of Wall and 
Broad Streets. Eighteen million dollars' worth of property 
was destroyed and thousands of people were reduced to pov- 
erty and rendered homeless. 

During Jackson's administration a number of eminent men 
of our early history died — James Monroe (July 4, 1831) ; 
Charles Carroll of Garrollton (1832) ; -Philip Freneau (1832) ; 
John Marshall (1835); James Madison (1836). 

Two states were admitted during the administration: Ar- 
kansas (slave state) as the twenty-fifth (1836) ; and Michigan 
(free state) as the twenty-sixth (1837). Michigan was the 
fourth state to be formed from the Northwest Territory. 

436. First Provincial Council — Anti-Catholic Attacks. Dur- 
ing Jackson's administration the first Provincial Council, the 
first held in the nineteenth centurj^ and the first in any Eng- 
lish speaking country since the Reformation, was held (1829) 
at Baltimore. At this Council Archbishop Carroll and five of 
the eight bishops of the United States represented the Catholic 
Church in America and many wise regulations for its govern- 
ment were adopted. 

From the beginning of the establishment of Catholicity in 
America, there existed a party called Nativists, which, under 
the pretext of defending American institutions, carried on a 
warfare, sometimes open and sometimes secret, against the 
Catholic Church. Although there had been no open sign of 
hostility against the Catholic Church for nearly a generation, 
unhappily, as time went on, its growth was regarded by the 
Nativists with disfavor. Vile books, sermons, and lectures 
against the Catholic religion gradually gave rise to such excite- 
ment that a mob (August 11, 1834) attacked the Ursuline Con- 
vent at Charlestown, near Boston, drove out the defenseless 
nuns and children, and burned their home to the ground. St. 
Mary's Church in New York was also plundered and given to 
the flames. The government made no attempt to prevent these 



ANDREW Jackson's administration 343 

outrages and the leaders were subjected to only a farcical 
trial, which resulted in their acquittal. 

437. National Progress. Jackson's administration was nota- 
ble not only as a turning point in political affairs, but also as 
the beginning of a marked commercial and social progress. 
A new literature arose, which will be spoken of later on, in 
a review of the century's progress. Suffice it to note here that 
the stirring events which had occurred since the making of the 
Constitution and the rapid growth of the country soon found 
a place in song and story. Patriotic literature, which includes 
the great speeches of Clay and Webster, helped to strengthen 
the Union. American artists depicted scenes from the history 
of the nation, such as the signing of the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, Washington crossing the Delaware, and Perry's vic- 
tory on Lake Erie. 



CHAPTER XXIV 

MARTIN VAN BUREN'S ADMINISTRATION 
DEMOCRAT— 1837-1841 

438. Van Buren and Johnson Are Elected. In the election 
of 1836, Martin Van Buren, the Democratic nominee, was made 
President by a nmjority of forty-six electoral votes. The Whig 
vote was divided among several candidates, of whom the lead- 
ing one was General Harrison, of Tippecanoe fame. As the 
electoral college failed to choose a Vice-president, Richard M. 
Johnson was elected by the Senate. 

Van Buren (1782-1862) was born of Dutch ancestry at Kin- 
derhook. New York. He had been in succession United States 
Senator, Governor of New York, Secretary of State, and Vice- 
president. From the very first, poj^ular feeling began to go 
against him ; people thought him a small, selfish politician, 
responsible for many of the evil proceedings of Jackson's reign. 
Nor was this to be wondered at, since he had secured the votes 
of Jackson's adherents by pledging himself to follow closely 
in the footsteps of his former chief. Van Buren, nevertheless, 
show^ed himself to be an able political manager, strong enough 
to withstand the distrust of his fellow-men, and his tact and 
geniality in dealing with his opponents won for him the title 
of "Little Magician." 

439. The Panic of 1837. Van Buren had scarcely taken the 
oath of office before the country was in the midst of the worst 
financial panic it had ever experienced. People who had gone 
in debt were ruined. Bank after bank — pet banks and wild-cat 
banks — failed. Business houses went bankrupt. Factories 
closed their doors, and thousands of laborers were thrown out 
of work. Poor crops in the middle and western states added 

344 



MARTIN VAN BUREN 'S ADMINISTRATION 345 

to the general distress. High prices and high rents weighed 
heavily on the poor. Flour rose to eleven dollars a barrel and 
corn to one dollar and fifteen cents per bushel. Strikes and 
bread riots occurred in cities, and the people called loudly for 
help from the government. But the national government had 
not even the money to pay its officials. Adams truthfully de- 
clared, "Without a dollar of national debt, we are in the midst 
of national bankruptcy." Individual states had borrowed mil- 
lions of dollars from European nations and now found it im- 
possible to raise money to pay the principal or to meet the 
interest. For many years afterwards Europeans looked with 
disfavor on American securities. 

The causes for the panic may be traced to reckless banking 
and to wild speculation. The danger of the banking system 
arose from the fact that the banks issued notes (promises of 
money), though they had no money or capital to redeem their 
promise. The notes of a Michigan bank bore on them a picture 
of a wild-cat ; when this bank failed, its notes became known 
as wild-cat notes and afterwards all banks that could not 
redeem their bills (pay for them in gold or silver) were called 
' ' wild-cat banks, ' ' and their notes ' ' wild-cat money. ' ' 

440. The Independent Treasury. The experience which the 
government liad passed through twice (1814, 1837) proved that 
it was not safe to deposit the nation's money in state banks. 
Van Buren, showing real strength at this critical time, called 
a special session of Congress to devise some plan for protecting 
the funds of the United States. This session passed (1840) the 
Independent Treasury Act, which provided that the govern- 
ment should maintain a safe place in which to keep its money 
in order that the nation's funds might not be exposed to a risk 
of loss in state banks, as was the case in the disastrous failure 
of the "pet banks." Congress furthermore provided that the 
officials of the government should give security for the proper 
discharge of their duties, and that all payments to or by the 
United States should be exclusively in gold or silver. 



346 A HISTORY OF THP] UNITED STATES 

The Independent Treasury plan was repealed soon after, but 
was later reenacted (1846) and is in existence today. By this 
excellent system, which we owe mainly to President Van Buren, 
the public money is deposited in vaults and safes in the Treasury 
building at Washington, and in the Sub-Treasuries of New York, 
Philadelphia, Chicago, Boston, St. Louis, Cincinnati, San Fran- 
cisco, New Orleans, and Baltimore. 

441. The Canadian Rebellion. In 1837 Canada rebelled against 
England. Many Americans living on the border sympathized 
with the Canadians and, with the hope of annexing Canada to 
the United States, a party of seven hundred crossed the boundary 
and took possession of Navy Island, in the Niagara River. Van 
Buren promptly forbade interference in the affairs of Canada 
and sent thither General Scott with an armed force. Harmony 
was restored, and trouble with England averted. 

442. The Mormons. A new religious sect, the Mormons, or 
"Latter-Day Saints," sprang up about 1830, at Manchester, 
New York. Its leader, Joseph Smith, the son of a Vermont 
farmer, claimed to have received from heaven, revelations writ- 
ten in mystic characters on plates of brass. The new sect from 
the beginning met with great opposition because of its strange 
teachings. Smith and his followers emigrated to Ohio (1831), 
but they were soon driven out of the state by the citizens 
(1838). They later met the same fate in Missouri. In Illinois, 
where they were kindly received, they built their "Holy City," 
Nauvoo, and gathered in that vicinity to the number of twenty 
thousand. Later, however. Smith aroused popular indig- 
nation by causing the destruction of a press which had de- 
nounced his doctrine of polygamy. In 1844 the Mormon leader 
and his brother were imprisoned and later shot in a Carthage 
jail by a mob. 

Shortly after, the Mormons, under their new leader, Brig- 
ham Young, moved westward (February, 1846), across the 
frozen Mississippi and the prairies of Iowa, to the Missouri 
River (June). From here, a company of one hundred and 



MARTIN VAN BUREN's ADMINISTRATION 347 

forty-three men, led by Young, made a difficult journey of over 
one thousand miles across the mountains to the great Salt Lake 
(April, 1847). Other parties soon followed and the Mormons 
thus became the founders of Salt Lake City, Utah. The main 
reason for the persistent hostility throughout America to the 
Mormons was their practice of polygamy. 

443. Foreign Immigration — Progress of Catholicity. A regu- 
lar line of steamships had been established between Liverpool 
and Boston (1830), and later between Liverpool and New York, 
and innnigration i)oured into the United States, In ten years 
(1830-1840) more than one hundred thousand Europeans landed 
in New York alone. 

This decade of immigration marks a period of great develop- 
ment in Catholicity throughout the United States. New bish- 
oprics were erected in the West ; cathedrals were built ; con- 
vents, seminaries, colleges, schools, and orphan asylums found- 
ed ; and a number of Catholic newspapers established. Un- 
fortunately many of the immigrants were loud in expressing 
their old world national prejudices. The formation of the 
Holy Alliance ; enthusiastic lectures given in Europe for the 
purpose of encouraging missionary work in the United States ; 
the founding of the Leopoldina Society in Vienna, Austria, for 
the same purpose — all these activities were persistently mis- 
interpreted as so many attempts of the Catholic powers to de- 
stroy the free institutions of America. Bigots of the worst type 
incited the imagination of Protestants against the Church, and 
assailed her from pulpit and platform. 

Conscience obliged the American Catholics to maintain their 
own parochial schools, but at the sanu^ time they were taxed 
for the support of the public schools. Accordingly, they de- 
manded a share in the public educational funds. Moreover, 
they demanded that in the public schools the Protestant Bible 
should not be forced on Catholic children. The latter demand 
was granted them in course of time, but they have never been 
relieved from double taxation. 



348 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

444. Political Parties. The country was now divided into 
three parties : 

(a) the Whig (National-Republican), which had gained greatly 
in strength, as it had been re-enforced by adherents 
from the South who opposed Jackson's views on the 
question of nullification; 

(h) the Democratic party; 

.(c) the Anti-slavery, or Liberty party, an outgrowth of the 
abolition movement. The principles of its platform were 
that each state should have the right to regulate slavery 
within its boundary, and that Congress should abolish 
slavery in the territories and in the District of Colum- 
bia, and admit no more slave states into the Union. 

The Democrats and the Whigs in their party platforms en- 
doised the cause of the immigrants. 

Tlie Nativists and bigots (1841) formed a new party called 
the Native Americans. They demanded that 

(a) twenty-one years' residence be made a condition of citizen- 
ship ; 

(6) no one could become an official of the government except 
a native American ; 

(c) there be no union of Church and State; 

{(l) no Bible be taught in the schools; and 

(c) "Encroachments of Popery" be opposed. 

This party sorely afflicted the Church, but its collapse was as 
rapid as its rise. 

445. Van Buren Becomes Unpopular. The people laid all 
the blame for the hard times on Van Buren and his party, and 
the president became more and more unpopular. The nu- 
merous cases of mismanagement and fraud which now came to 
light, the etfects of arbitrary removals and partisan appoint- 
ments, the financial panic, all of which were really the result 
of the Jackson administration, were ascribed to the policy of 



MARTIN VAN BUREN S ADMINISTRATION 



349 



the Democratic party ; while Van Buren came to be looked 
upon as indifferent to the sufferings of the people and as tak- 
i)ig care only of the government's money (by the Independent 
Treasury Act). The people were determined to turn the "Lit- 
tle Magician" out of office. 




AVESTKUN HOMK OF THE PKUIOD 



CHAPTER XXV 

THE HAREISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION 
WHIG— 1S4 1-1845 

446. Harrison and Tyler Are Elected. In this election of 
1840 William Harrison, the Whig "Log Cabin Candidate," 
was elected President by a majority of one hundred and sev- 
enty-four votes over Van Buren, the Democratic nominee. 
John Tyler was chosen Vice-president. 

The campaign of 1840 stands out in marked contrast to all 
preceding ones because of its appeals to the passions of the 
multitude. For months the people gave themselves up to noisy 
and unreasoning partisanship. "Down with Van Burenism!" 
was the cry. The contemptuous statement of a Democratic 
editor that Harrison would be more in his element in his log 
cabin, drinking hard cider, and skinning "coons" than in 
the White House, was promptly taken up by the Whigs. In 
their outdoor meetings and long processions, a log cabin on 
wdieels, containing barrels of cider and live "coons," was al- 
w^ays a conspicuous object, while "Tippecanoe and Tyler too" 
became the striking watchword. At a Democratic meeting, 
held in New York (1835), in the midst of a scene of contest 
and confusion, the lights were suddenly extinguished. Pre- 
pared for the emergency the men of the opposition had pro- 
vided themselves with candles and locofoco matches; hence the 
name Locofocos, as applied to a faction of the Democratic party. 

Harrison (1773-1841), a native of Virginia, and the son of 
Benjamin Harrison, a signer of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence, was the hero of Tippecanoe and of the victory on the 
Thames (1812). He had been Governor of Indiana Territory 
and had served in turn as Representative and Senator in the 

350 



THE HARRISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION 851 

United States Congress. Yet he had not been considered a 
national statesman in any sense. He was, however, earnest 
and straightforward, and a man of the people. For a number 
of years he had taken no part in public life ; in fact, at the 
time of his election he was attending to the affairs of his farm 
in Ohio. 

447. Work Confronting the New Administration — Harrison 
Dies. As may be inferred from the events of the last presi- 
dency, Harrison assumed the duties of office under trying con- 
ditions. Both government and people were in real distress. 
An extra session of Congress was necessary to devise meas- 
ures of relief as speedily as possible. Henry Clay had pre- 
pared a list of )neasures which included : 

(a) the repeal of the Independent Treasury Act; 

(6) the establishment of a new national bank; 

(c) the raising of a temporary loan; and, 

(d) the laying of permanent tariff duties. 

The excitement and fatigue of the campaign and the diffi- 
culties attendant upon dealing with a mad rush of office seekers 
proved too much for even Harrison's vigorous and toughened 
frame. He died suddenly, just one month after his inaugura- 
tion, in his sixty-ninth year. 

448. Embarrassment of the Whig Party. The office of Presi- 
dent now fell to Tyler. Thus, for the first time in the history 
of our country, the Vice-president succeeded to the presidency 
upon the death of his chief. The Whigs found themselves in 
a novel and most embarrassing situation. Instead of a Presi- 
dent who was a real Whig, they had one who was in truth a 
Democrat, except in a few particulars. Tyler for a time, how- 
ever, retained Harrison's cabinet, which was made up of loyal 
Whigs, led by the great Whig champion, Daniel Webster, as 
Secretary of State. 

449. Clay's Program in Congress. Though Clay had serious 
misgivings concerning the new President, he nevertheless 
came forward with his program, and a bill repealing the Inde- 



352 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

pendent Treasuiy Act was passed without difficulty. Two 
bank bills in succession were introduced and passed both houses 
of Congress. It was now that Tyler proved himself no Whig. 
He promptly vetoed both bills on constitutional grounds, and 
the Whigs had not the necessary two-thirds vote to pass it 
over his veto. The Whig leaders were furious and every mem- 
ber of the cabinet resigned, with the exception of Webster, 
who remained to complete a negotiation begun with Great 
Britain. 

The immediate needs of the Treasury were provided for by 
a loan, and a new tariff measure, which increased the duties, 
was passed (1842), but not until after two other tariff bills 
had been vetoed by the President. Though the Whig program 
for the most part had been carried out, all efforts to carry the 
bank measure proved futile, and the breach between the Presi- 
dent and his party became open. Clay resigned from the 
Senate. 

450. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. By an agreement between 
Webster and Lord Ashburton, a treaty was signed (1842) at 
Washington, by which : 

(a) the long disputed boundary line between Maine and Can- 
ada was fixed, and the line as far west as the Lake of 
the Woods likewise defined; 

(&) our fishing rights in British waters were renewed; 

(c) each nation (Great Britain and the United States) was 

to keep an armed squadron cruising off the African coast 
in order to suppress the slave trade ; 

(d) terms for the extradition of criminals were agreed upon. 

451. Dorr's Rebellion. Rhode Island was still governed by 
its colonial charter. Under it no man was allowed to vote 
unless he held real estate worth one hundred and thirty-four 
dollars, or property renting for seven dollars a year, or was 
the eldest son of such a ''freeman." An attempt of the people 
to secure a more liberal state constitution (1842) ended in the 
so-called Dorr Rebellion. The "people's party," headed by 



THE HARRISON-TYLER ADMINISTRATION 353 

Thomas W. Dorr, proceeded to seize the state property by 
force and to set up a goverinnent under a new constitution. 
Tyler sent United States troops into the state to uphold the 
old government. Dorr was convicted and sentenced to im- 
prisonment for life, but was eventually pardoned. Later a 
more liberal constitution was adopted. 

452. Anti-Rent Trouble. The large estates, or manors which 
had been created during the early history of New York had 
by this time increased greatly in value. Some of the tenants 
(at first only those on the Van Rensselaer patroonship) refused 
to pay their rent. Furthermore, (1844) they tarred and feath- 
ered those of their fellow-tenants Mdio paid their rents, and re- 
sisted and even killed the officers sent to serve warrants on them. 
Order was ultimately restored by the state militia and by the 
judicious measures of the governor. In time, most of the 
landed estates were sold to the tenants. 

453. The First Electric Telegraph. Samuel F. B. Morse, after 
four years of effort, finally received from Congress a grant 
of thirty thousand dollars for the purpose of erecting an ex- 
perimental telegraph line between Baltimore and Washing- 
ton (forty miles). The first message, "What hath God 
wrought," proved the success of an invention which today 
covers the United States like a network. The first public 
message was the announcement of the nomination of James K. 
Polk for the presidency by a Democratic convention. 

454. Native American Riots. The native American party 
provoked a dreadful riot in Philadelphia (1844). An army 
of ruffians, hounded on by pulpit harangues of fanatical min- 
isters, destroyed two Catholic churches, a house of the Sisters 
of Charity, the valuable library of the Augustinian Fathers, 
and a number of private dwellings occupied by Catholics. 

A similar riot in New York was prevented by the firmness 
of Bishop Hughes, the champion of Catholicity and Catholic 
education in the state. Through the influence of his fiery elo- 
quence, the New York Catholics publicly declared that if the 



354 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

laws of the state would not protect their lives and property, 
they would know how to defend themselves; and thus they 
cowed the bigots. 

During the agitation of the "School Question" (1841) Bishop 
Hughes again, with matchless ability, defended the Catholic 
side in the Legislature. When this bodj^ denied him justice, 
he influenced the votes of his flock at the polls to such an ex- 
tent as to convince the politicians that the Catholics were no 
longer to be trifled with or despised. 

It is well to note here that the system of education against 
which the Catholics protested (1841) was more than insidiously 
dangerous. Not merely were the textbooks used, replete with 
sneers and libels against the Church, but the teachers, by 
their explanations, imparted additional authority to the 
calumnies. 

455. The Annexation of Texas and the Occupation of Oregon 
Become Party Issues. Texas had applied for admission into 
the Union during Van Buren's administration, but the Presi- 
dent did not favor its annexation. The matter was again 
urged during Tyler's administration; Calhoun, the slavery ad- 
vocate, accepted the office of Secretary of State for the ex- 
press puri:>ose of carrying out his project of adding this new 
slave territory to the South. The question now became the lead- 
ing issue in the presidential campaign of the year. There was 
much opposition in the North to the admission of Texas, partly 
because it threatened to involve the country in war with Mex- 
ico, and partly because it would increase the area of slavery. 
On these grounds Clay, though in favor of annexation, opposed 
immediate action. 

A treaty (1818) with Great Britain had left the Oregon coun- 
try for ten years to joint occupancy, and another treaty made 
by the United States, Great Britain, and Russia had fixed the 
parallel of 54° 40' as the boundary line between the Oregon 
territory and Alaska. Meanwhile about twelve thousand Amer- 
icans had settled in Oregon, and they naturally demanded a 



THE HARRISON-TYLER zVDMINISTRATION 



355 



settlement of the boundary and an end of joint occupancy. 
Soon this matter also became a party measure. 

The platform of the Democratic party now included the an- 
nexation of Texas and the re-occupation of Oregon. It claimed 
tliat the annexation of Texas, which was slave soil, could be 
offset by the acquisition of the whole of Oregon, which was 
free soil; hence, the Democratic campaign cries were: "The 



54' 40' 



4Z0 




THE OREGON COUNTRY 



annexation of Texas," "The whole of Oregon or none," "Fifty- 
four forty or fight." 

The missionaries were among the first Americans to find 
their way to the Oregon country. Through the Canadian fur 
trading posts a number of them, among whom were Fathers 
Blanchet and Demers, came from Montreal to Oregon and es- 
tablished many missions. Two years later the youthful and 



356 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

saintly Father De Smet, the famous Jesuit missionary of Flor- 
rissant, Missouri, set out from the Missouri River with a large 
party of Oregon-bound emigrants, and founded (1841) the first 
of his many missions among the Flathead Indians. Not long 
after, he brought from Europe to the Oregon missions four 
priests and six sisters of Notre Dame of Namur. The sisters 
at once opened a school for girls. So rapid was the progress 
of the Catholic Church in Oregon that Father Blanchet was 
soon appointed bishop (1843). 

456. New States. Tyler, foreseeing the outcome of the presi- 
dential campaign, urged the annexation of Texas. Three days 
before the expiration of his term a resolution annexing it to 
the United States as a slave state (twenty-eighth state) passed 
Congress, and was immediately signed by the President (1845). 
Florida had been admitted into the Union the same year as 
the twenty-seventh state, with slavery. 



CHAPTER XXVI 

JAMES POLK'S ADMINISTRATION 
DEMOCRAT— 1845-1849 

457. Polk and Dallas Are Elected. The nominating conven- 
tions of both Whigs and Democrats met in Baltimore, a few 
weeks apart. The Democrats, after several preliminary votes 
for three or four prominent candidates, eventually turned to 
a comparatively unknown man, James K. Polk, of Tennessee. 
He is termed the first "dark horse" in American politics, be- 
cause he had not been publicly mentioned before the conven- 
tion. The Whigs nominated their great leader, Henry Clay, 
who had twice been defeated. The Whigs had undoubtedly 
chosen the far more brilliant candidate, but the Democratic 
l)latform was more in accordance with the policy of the people 
at large. It promised not onlj' the immediate annexation of 
Texas, of which the South was in favor, but also the occupancy 
of Oregon, which pleased the North. The election of 1844, 
therefore, resulted in the election of Polk. George M. Dallas 
of Pennsylvania was elected Vice-president. 

James K. Polk (1795-1849) was a native of North Carolina. 
He was successively lawyer, congressman and governor of his 
state, but was in no wise an eminent or brilliant man. In pri- 
vate life, his standards of honor were high, but his public ca- 
reer was marred by questionable dealings with Mexico. He 
was, nevertheless, a man of staunch character, not unlike Jack- 
son, his intimate friend. No sooner had he been inaugurated 
than he proceeded with much vigor to carry out his party's 
policy. 

458. Polk's Program. Polk was elected mainly to effect the 
annexation of Texas, but he found this task performed before 

357 



358 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

he came into office. He at once determined upon four meas- 
ures, all of which, with a Democratic majority in Congress, he 
carried out successfully : 

(a) the readjustment of the tariff, which was reduced by the 
enactment of the Walker Tariff, named after its author 
who was Secretary of the Treasury. By this tariff lux- 
uries were to be taxed from forty to one hundred per 
cent, and iron, wool, and other ordinary manufactures 
thirty per cent ; besides this, there was an extended free 
list ; 
{b) the Independent Treasury was re-established (1846) ; 
(t) the settlement of the Oregon boundary dispute by a treaty 
with Great Britain (1846), which provided that the line 
of 49° (the boundary from the Lake of the Woods to 
the crest of the Rocky Mountains) be extended through 
the Oregon country to the Pacific ; 
(c/) the ac(iuisition of California l)y war with Mexico. 

459. Pretexts for War with Mexico — War Declared. A boun- 
dary dispute between Texas and Mexico was the pretext for 
our war with Mexico. When Texas was still claimed by the 
United States as a part of the Louisiana Purchase, the Rio 
Grande was considered her southern and western boundary, 
but when it was a part of one of the states of Mexico, the 
Nueces River formed its boundary limits. President Polk, sid- 
ing w4th the Texans, claimed the country as far west as the 
Rio Grande, and ordered General Zachary Taylor (April, 1846) 
to occupy the disputed territory. 

The Mexicans crossed the Rio Grande and attacked the 
Americans. Shortly before this, Mexico had refused to re- 
ceive our minister. Polk promptly informed Congress, "Mex- 
ico has refused to receive our minister, has passed the boundary 
of the United States, has invaded our territory, and has shed 
American blood upon American soil.'' Congress, adopting 
the assertions of the President without any inquiry into their 
truth, affirmed (May 13, 1846) that the action of the Republic 



JxVMES POLK S ADMINISTRATION 



359 



of Mexico was a declaration of war against the United States. 
It at once voted money supplies, and called for fifty thousand 
volunteers, 

Calhoun, in the South, and the Whigs m the North, espe- 
cially the people of New England and the anti-slavery men, 
strongly opposed war and loudly denounced Polk and his or- 
ders. Unfortunately, it appears that our government was will- 




ing to settle the Oregon boundary dispute by compromise with 
Great Britain, a strong nation, while it enforced by violence 
the whole of its claim against Mexico, a weak nation. 

General Grant, himself a captain in the American army of 
invasion, wrote later that he considered the Mexican war ' * one 
of the most unjust ever waged by a stronger against a weaker 
nation. , . . We got our punishment in the most san- 



360 . A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

guinary and expensive war of modern times (Civil War)." 
The feeling of New England concerning the war found witty 
and suitable expression in Lowell's "Biglow Papers," a few 
lines of which read as follows : 

They just want this Californy 

So 's to lug new slave states in ; 
To abuse ye, and to scorn ye, 

An' to plunder ye like sin. 

460. Taylor's Campaign. Taylor, who had started out from 
Corpus Christi (May), on the mouth of the Nueces, attacked 
and defeated the Mexicans at Palo Alto and again at Resaca 
de la Palma. He then took Matamoras, after a bloody siege, 
and by September had pushed on into Mexico. He next 
stormed the famous city of Monterey and, after a desperate 
fight of three days captured it from the Mexicans. After this 
victory, he went to Buena Vista, whence the best part of his 
army was withdrawn by General Scott, who, as chief com- 
mander, had been sent to Mexico to carry out another part of 
the plan of invasion, Santa Anna, the Mexican commander, 
knowing of Taylor's weakened condition, attacked him at 
Buena Vista (February, 1847). A desperate battle, won by 
the American force of five thousand against the Mexican force 
of twelve thousand, was the result. Santa Anna immediately 
hurried off to attack Scott, who was expected at Vera Cruz. 
Whittier immortalizes the heroic charity of the Mexican women 
on the occasion of the Buena Vista battle, in his "Angels of 
Buena A'^ista, " of which the following is an extract: 

Whispered low the dying soldier, pressed her hand, and faintly smiled; 
Was that pitying face his mother's? Did she watch beside her child? 
All his stranger words with meaning her woman's heart supplied; 
With her kiss upon his forehead, "Mother!" murmured he, and died. 

* ' A bitter curse upon them, poor boy, who led thee forth 
From some gentle, sad-eyed mother, weeping lonely in the North ! ' ' 
Spake the mournful Mexic woman, as she laid him with her dead, 
And turned to soothe the living, and bind the wounds which bled. 



JAMES folk's administration 361 

Sink, O night, among the mountains! let the cool, gray s-hadows fall; 
Dying brothers, fighting demons, drop the curtain over all! 
Through the thick 'ning winter twilight, wide apart the battle rolled. 
In its sheath the saber rested, and the cannon's lips grew cold. 

But the noble Mexie women still their holy task pursued, 

Through that long, dark night of sorrow, worn and faint, and lacking food ; 

Over weak and suffering brothers with a tender care they hung. 

And the dying foemen blessed them in a strange and Northern tongue. 

461. Plan of the War— The United States Claims New Mex- 
ico and California. The plan of the war as arranged by Gen- 
eral Scott embraced an attack upon the northern part of 
Mexico (New Mexico -and California), an assault upon the 
Mexican capital, and a naval attack upon the Pacific coast. 

While Taylor was wiiming his victories in northeastern Mex- 
ico, General Stephen W. Kearny, with an army of two thou- 
sand men, conquered New Mexico and proclaimed it United 
States territory. He started out (June, 1846) from Fort 
Leavenworth, on the Missouri, in Kansas, traveled a distance 
of nine hundred miles over the mountains of Colorado to the 
Eio Grande River, and thence down to Santa- Fe, which place 
he took without a struggle. Kearny next proceeded westward 
to take possession of California, but that country had already 
been conquered by the joint action of John C. Fremont on land, 
and a fleet under Commodore Stockton on the Pacific. Three 
or four hundred American settlers already occupied this 
region. 

Thus the whole of the country south of Oregon had fallen 
into the hands of the Americans. 

John C. Fremont, called the "Pathfinder of the Rocky Moun- 
tains, " had been sent before the outbreak of the war (1845), 
with a small force of men to explore the then almost unknown 
region between the Groat Salt Lake and the Pacific. For some 
years he was thus employed, particularly with a view to the 
discovery of the best overland route between the two oceans. 
He crossed the continent many times, often suffering intensely 



362 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



from cold, hunger, and Indian attacks. On hearing that Mex- 
ico was at war with the United States, he hastened into Cali- 
fornia, drove the Mexicans from their settlement on the Sac- 
ramento, and then, acting with Stockton's naval force, occu- 
pied, first San Francisco, and then Los Angeles. 

462. General Scott's Campaign. General Scott, supported by 
Commodoi-e Perry's fleet, landed at Vera Cruz with the in- 
tention of taking the city of Mexico. After a nine days' bom- 
bardment, the Mexicans, under Santa Anna, surrendered Vera 
Cruz (March, 1847). Scott then began his two-hundred-mile 







^PAS^'OF CERRO GORDO 

■ SAN JUAN OE 
ULLOA 






THE ADVANCE TOWAIU) jMEXK'O 



march up the mountains toward the City of Mexico, the ancient 
capital of the Aztecs. It was just three hundred and twenty- 
eight years since Cortez, with his little band, had taken the 
same route from the same point and for the same purpose. 
Scott again defeated Santa Anna at the mountain pass of Cerro 
Gordo (April, 18-47) ; captured the beautiful city of Pueblo 
(May), and then pushed forward to within view of the capi- 
tal, eight thousand feet above the sea. The Americans now 
took in rapid succession (August) the strongholds and bat- 
teries guarding Mexico City. Scott, with his triumphant army, 
marched into the city (September 18, 1847), and hoisted the 
stars and stripes in the ancient city of the Montezumas. 



JAMES folk's administration 363 

463. Mexico Surrenders — The Treaty of Peace. In less than 
two years a series of desperate battles ended in an unbroken 
victory for our arms. The Mexicans, with their army help- 
less, and their government broken up, were compelled to sub- 
mit, and sign a treaty of peace (1848) at Guadaloupe Hidalgo. 
By this treaty, Mexico gave to the United States all territory 
north of tlie Rio Grande and Gila Rivers, which, besides Texas, 
comprises New Mexico, California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and 
parts of Colorado and Wyoming — in all, nearly one million 
square miles. The United States paid Mexico fifteen million 
dollars and, further, gave three million dollars to American 
citizens who had claims against Mexico. This seemed a great 
outlay to many peo^Dle, who declared that, for the Unites States, 
"Texas" meant simply "taxes." In the Mexican War many 
prominent officers of both armies in our Civil War received 
their first military schooling — Grant, McClellan, Lee, Beaure- 
gard, Jackson, Hooker, Longstreet, Buell, Johnston, Davis, etc. 

464. The Wilmot Proviso. While the armies were gaining 
their hard-fought victories in Mexico, Congress was harassed 
by the slavery question. During a debate on a bill to appro- 
priate a sum of money for the purpose of negotiating peace 
with Mexico, David Wilmot, a northern anti-slavery man, of- 
fered an amendment to the appropriation bill, the so-called 
Wilmot Proviso, which provided that slavery be forever ex- 
cluded from the lands to be acquired from Mexico. Naturally 
the whole South rose in opposition. The bill was lost in the 
Senate ; but it made the question of slavery in the Mexican 
cession, the principal issue in the campaign of 1848. 

The Democrats were divided on the question. The northern 
anti-slavery Democrats favored the Wilmot Proviso; the south- 
ern pro-slavery Democrats opposed it. The party platform 
avoided the question altogether, and though the Democratic 
majority was in the south this party nominated a northern 
non-slaveholder, Lewis Cass, of Michigan. Cass, in a letter, 
sought the favor of the southern faction of his party by ad- 



364 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

vocating the so-called "popular" or "squatter sovereignty," 
according to which the people of the territories were to decide 
for themselves the question of slavery. 

The "squatter-sovereignty" policy of Cass offended many of 
the anti-slavery Democrats, who eventually withdrew from 
their party convention. The Whigs, most numerous in the 
North, nominated for President a southern man, a slaveholder, 
General Zachary Taylor, the hero of Buena Vista. This party 
was also divided, for the southern section opposed the Wilmot 
Proviso, while the northern greatly favored it. Hence, the 
Whig, like the Democratic platform, also avoided any men- 
tion of the Wilmot Proviso question, even tliough it was of 
vital interest in the campaign. Because of this, many of the 
Whigs separated from their party, joined the Democrats, who 
had withdrawn from their party, and formed the "Free-Soil" 
party, which adopted as watchword "Free soil, free speech, 
free labor, and free men." Joined by the Liberty party, the 
Free-soil ers nominated Martin Van Buren for the presidency. 
Thus, we see that at this election even the tAvo old parties were 
beginning to break up on the slavery question. 

465. The Discovery of Gold in California. About this time 
a magical change was taking place in California. But a few 
days before the peace of Guadaloupe (January, 1848), gold 
was discovered at Coloma, on the fork of the American River 
in the valley of the Sacramento, about one hundred miles north- 
east of San Francisco. James W. Marshall, a millwright in 
the employ of Colonel Sutter, a Swiss settler, found a num- 
ber of kernels of metal which were about the size of grains 
of wheat; upon test they proved to be solid gold. The dis- 
covery of the ])recious metal was for a time kept secret ; but 
the workers in the mill soon learned of it, and the fact was an- 
nounced in a San Francisco paper. From all parts of the 
Union and, indeed, from all parts of the world, eager gold- 
seekers, afterwards styled "forty-niners," flocked over the 
plains, across the isthmus or around the Horn, to the gold 



JAMES folk's administration 



365 



fields. By the autumn of 1849, California contained nearly one 
hundi-ed thousand people, and San Francisco sprang up, as if 
by magic, from a little village to a city of twenty thousand. 
This large population was composed of all sorts and conditions 
of men, who were at first governed only by vigilance commit- 
tees and lynch laws. Before long, however, the people organ- 
ized themselves in an orderly way into a state and adopted a 
constitution, by which slavery was forbidden. Even before a 
code of laws could be framed for the territory, the Califor- 




A NIGHT ON THE CALIFORNIA TRAIL 



nians asked to be admitted to the Union (1850). The Senate, 
however, rejected the application because of the clause in the 
territorial constitution which prohibited slavery. 

The discovery of gold in California gave to the United States 
a firm possession of the Pacific coast by rapidly peopling the 
California Avilderness. It also caused the establishment of 
new lines of steamships, new railroad routes and new markets, 
for after the gold mines became less profitable, the people set 
about the cultivation of the land and the raising of sheep and 



366 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

cattle. California later became the chief fruit-growing region 
of the United States. 

466. Two New States. During Polk's administration, two 
non-slaveholding states were admitted to the Union : Iowa 
(1846), the twenty-ninth state, and the fourth formed from 
the territory gained by the Louisiana Purchase ; and Wiscon- 
sin (1848), the thirtieth state, and the fifth and last formed 
out of the Nortliwest Territory. 

467. Indian Missions in Mexico and California. New Mexico 
had been explored and the natives christianized by Spanish 
missionaries more than three hundred years (1539) before the 
territory had become a part of the United States. So rapid 
was the progress of these early missions, that within the space 
of a few years twenty-seven stations were established, many 
of which possessed large churches. The Indian converts, who 
were numbered by thousands, had learned to read and write, 
and had adopted the customs of civilization. Though the hos- 
tility of pagan tribes and the oppression of civil authority sadly 
harassed the prosperity of these Catholic Indian missions, they 
have never been entirely suppressed. 

The mission of San Francisco was founded contemporane- 
ously with the declaration of American independence (1776). 
The Franciscans, under their superior. Father Serra, estab- 
lished San Diego as their first mission (1769). The founding 
of Monterey followed (1770) ; then in rapid succession, San 
Francisco (1776), Santa Clara (1777), San Jose (1779), Los 
Angeles (1781), Santa Barbara (1781), and many others, un- 
til an unbroken chain of missions, more than twenty in num- 
ber, linked San Diego with San Francisco. Under the super- 
vision of the zealous sons of St. Francis of Assissi, the roving 
savages were soon won for the Church and civilization, and 
were ultimately transformed into orderly, industrious, and ex- 
pert farmers, masons, or weavers. At one time the Catholic 
missions numbered about thirty thousand Indians, whose thrift 
and prosperity were attested by their possession of over four 



JAMES POLK S ADMINISTRATION 



:m 



thousand head of cattle, sixty-two tliousand horses, and more 
than three hundred thousand sheep. Many of the missionaries 
had been noted in Spain as men of culture, as soldiers, engi- 
neers, artists, lawyers, and physicians, before they wore the 
humble garb of their Order, but they did not scorn to labor 
with their charges in the fields, in brickyards, at the forge, or 
in the mills. 

By a decree of the Mexican (*ongress, the Indian missions 




THE CHAPEL OF THE SAN GABRIEL MISSION 

were eventually made state property. The converts were thus 
scattered, and within five years, the number of Catholic In- 
dians was reduced from thirty thousand to four thousand, and 
when California became a territory of the United States only 
a few remains of the once prosperous missions could be traced. 
The Jesuits early began (1697) the work of spreading the 
gospel among the native Indians of Lower California, and 
continued this work until the society was finally expelled from 
the Spanish domains (1767). 



368 A- HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

468. The Nation's Patroness. America, from the very date 
of its discovery, was loyally devoted to the Mother of God, 
and in (1846) the Sixth Council of Baltimore, by its first act, 
solemnly chose Mary the Immaculate, as patroness of the Cath- J 
olic Church in the United States, J 



CHAPTER XXVII 

THE TAYLOE-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 
WHI<; — 1840-1853 

469. Taylor and Fillmore Are Elected. At the election of 
1848, Zachary Taylor of Louisiana, the Whig nominee, was 
elected as the twelfth President by a majority of thirty-six 
votes over Lewis Cass of Michigan, the Democratic candidate. 
Millard Fillmore of New York was chosen Vice-president. 

Zachary Taylor (1784-1850) was a native of Virginia. He 
fought in the War of 1812, in the Black Hawk War, and 
gained great fame in the Mexican War. He was, on the whole, 
more of a soldier than a politician. In fact, he took little in- 
terest in politics and had not even voted for forty years. He 
was a plain, straightforward man, and when nominated for 
the presidency, he declared that, if elected, he would be the 
President of no party or faction, but of the entire nation. 
Though a slaveholder, he did not desire to see the system ex- 
tended to the territories where the people opposed it. He was 
much loved by his soldiers, who called him "Old Rough and 
Ready." 

Millard Fillmore (1800-1874) was a native of New York. He 
practiced law and later became a Congressman from his state. 
He supported Clay's compromise measures and won for him- 
self strong opposition in the North by favoring the Fugitive 
Slave Law. 

470. Able Statesmen in Congjess. The thirty-first Congress 
was noted for two things: in the Senate for the last time were 
heard the familiar voices of the great triumvirate — Webster, 
Clay, and Calhoun — all of whom had for forty years figured in 
every important political movement. Ready to supplant these 

369 



370 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

famous leaders were a number of young men of a new genera- 
tion. William H. Seward of New York, Salmon P. Chase of 
Ohio, Jefferson Davis of Mississippi, Stephen A. Douglas of 
Illinois, and Charles Sumner of Massachusetts, now gained 
prominence in political life. In fact, never before had there 
been such a group of able statesmen in the Senate. 

At this time, there were fifteen free and fifteen slave states. 
There was no other slave territory to enter the Union, and if 
California were admitted as a free state, the northerners would 
have a majority in the Senate ; as it was, they already con- 
trolled the House of Representatives. 

471. Debates on the Extension of Slavery in the Territories. 
When General Taylor was inaugurated President, the North 
and the South were already engaged in passionate disputes 
over the slavery problem; from the founding of the govern- 
ment to the Civil War, the year 1850 was the darkest and 
most threatening. The question of slavery, especially its ex- 
tension to the great Southwest, was like a wedge, forcing the 
North and the South farther and farther apart. The points 
in dispute between the two sections were chiefly the following : 
(a) the North wanted California admitted as a free-soil state; 

the South would not consent, unless the Missouri Com- 
promise line (the parallel of 36 degrees 30 minutes) was 
extended to the Pacific. 
(&) the northerners insisted that slavery be abolished in the 
District of Columbia ; the southerners complained that 
the Fugitive Slave Law of 1793 was not enforced in the 
free states ; 

(c) the North demanded that there be no more slave states 

and no more slave territory; 

(d) Texas claimed the part of New Mexico lying east of the 

Rio Grande. This met with strenuous opposition from 
tlie North. 

472. The Compromise of 1850. Clay at this perilous time 
once more came forward as peacemaker, and proposed the 



THE TAYLOR-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 371 

measure known as the "Compromise of 1850,'' or tlie "Omni- 
bus Bill," because of the many points it contained. Its chief 
provisions were : 
(a) that California be admitted as a free state to favor the 

North ; 
(&) that New Mexico and Utah be organized as territories 

without provision as to slavery — to appease the South ; 

(c) that Texas be paid ten million dollars to give to the Federal 

government her claim on New Mexico — to appease the 
South ; 

(d) that the slave trade (not slavery) be abolished in the Dis- 

trict of Columbia — to please the North. 

During a period of seven months the Omnibus Bill was the 
one great topic for debate in Congress and for discussion in 
the press and by the people of the entire country. As might 
be expected, the compromise measures occasioned scenes of 
intense excitement in Congress. The debates that followed in 
the Senate were brilliant. 

Clay, now a venerable man of seventy-three, physically weak, 
himself a slaveholder, made an earnest appeal for peace and 
compromise; his plea was for "keeping the Union together 
in one family, in harmony and concord," that the "gaping 
wounds of the country might be healed." For two days he 
swayed the audience, which filled the Senate chamber to 
overflowing. 

John C. Calhoun, the great champion of states' rights, was 
so feeble that his speech had to be read for him by a friend. 
Wrapped in a cloak, his long white hair hanging down the 
sides of his pale, emaciated face, the great leader of the South 
sat in his chair motionless, statue-like, and, with the hand of 
death upon him, listened to his own words of appeal and warn- 
ing to the North in behalf of his beloved South. He demanded 
an equal division of territory between the two sections; more 
effective laws for the return of fugitive slaves, and the com- 
plete and lasting cessation of slavery agitation; and closed 



372 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

with the words, "if you of the North will not do this, say 
so, and let our Southern states agree to separate and part in 
peace." Though Calhoun wished to preserve the Union, he 
looked upon it as a union of a northern section and a south- 
ern section, rather than a union of states. 

"Webster, in his "Seventh of March Speech," which he him- 
self regarded as the most important of his life, expressed his 
sincere love for the Union, and denounced both the northern 
and the southern agitators. He placed the chief blame, how- 
ever, on the anti-slavery men, and they were greatly disap- 
pointed to find their famous champion seemingly deserting 
their cause. Webster felt that the great duty of the hour was 
to save the Union, not to oppose slavery. The Union could 
be best preserved, he thought, by Clay's compromise bill. 
Tliough Webster's influence helped not only to secure the com- 
promise, but also to postpone the awful war for a decade of 
years, he never again regained his former political prestige. 
(Read Whittier's "Ichabod.") 

William H. Seward of New York and Salmon P. Chase of 
Ohio now took the place of "Webster as leaders of the anti- 
slavery party. They both opposed the compromise, and Sew- 
ard startled the slavery advocates by declaring that "a higher 
law than the Constitution, the law of God and of reason, made 
the territories free." Seward's "higher law" doctrine was 
wrongly interpreted by his opponents as meaning that "the 
law of God and of reason" should always be superior to the 
Constitution. He, however, meant to say that the law of 
God and of reason, as well as the Constitution, condeunied 
slavery. 

Jefferson Davis and Stephen A. Douglas took the place of 
the dying Calhoun in behalf of the South, and were, like 
Seward and Chase, much more outspoken than the older states- 
man had been. 

473. Taylor's Death. The debate went on day after day. 
Separate provisions of Clay's compromise were passed; but 



THE TAYLOR-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 373 

while the question was still being considered, Taylor suddenly 
died, after being in office only sixteen months. Vice-president 
Fillmore, an advocate of the compromise, now became Presi- 
dent, and signed the last of the bills, the Fugitive Slave Law 
(September, 1850). 

474. California Becomes a State — The Pony Express. The 
"pony express" carried to California the news that she was 
admitted to the Union as a free state. The pony express es- 
tablished a means of communication between the East and the 
Pacific coast. Stations some twenty miles apart were erected 
all the way from the Missouri River to the Sacramento, a dis- 
tance of about two thousand miles. A messenger mounted on 
a fast pony set out across the plains to the first station, whence 
he took another horse and again sped away toward the next 
station. At every third station another rider took the mail. 
Eight days were required to traverse the distance and fre- 
quently riders perished in the wintry blizzards or were killed 
by the Indians. The cost of sending a letter by the pony ex- 
press was five dollars, which charge, however, was soon re- 
duced one-half. Some years later, stage coaches were used 
along siniilur routes. 

475. The Fug-itive Slave Law. The last of the measures in- 
cluded in the Omnibus Bill having been adopted, a wave of 
relief swept over the countiy. The people, with Clay, hoped 
that harmony and good will would once more prevail, as after 
the Missouri Compromise. But, alas, these hopes were not to 
be realized ; the Fugitive Slave Law stood in the way. This 
law : 

(a) gave United States officers power to turn over a colored 

man to anyone who claimed the negro as an escaped 
slave, even if the slave in question had been free for a 
number of years; 

(b) denied the negro the right of trial by jury; 

(c) demanded that all citizens, if called upon by officers, should 

aid in securing the return of a fugitive slave ; 



374 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

(d) imposed a fine and imprisonment on anyone who harbored 
a fugitive or prevented his capture. The execution of 
this law brought with it the constant invasion of the 
northern states by "slave-catchers," or "man-hunters," 
and continually kept before the people of the North the 
most hateful and barliarous aspects of slavery. This law 
did more toward rousing the moral sentiment of that 
section than the arguments of the Abolitionists had done 
in a score of years. 

476. Personal Liberty Laws — Underground Railroad. Tlie 
North, finding the Fugitive fSlave Law so extremely odious, de- 
termined not to return runaway slaves, but rather to protect 
and assist them to escape. Many of the northern states passed 
"Personal Liberty Laws," which, in essence, really amounted 
to nullification of the fugitive law, since they did not permit 
the use of jails for the fugitives, forbade judges and officers 
to aid in the return of runaways ; granted to slaves the right 
of trial by jury ; and punished attempts to seize and return 
free negroes. 

Many slaves, by means of the so-called "Underground Rail- 
road," or secret routes, were helped to escape to Canada, or 
some other place of safety in the North. One of the most fa- 
mous routes of the Underground Railroad was from Cincin- 
nati to Detroit; another from Baltimore to New York, and 
thence to Canada or New England. 

477. The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. While the Omnibus Bill 
was absorbing the attention of the country, the Clayton-Bulwer 
Treaty was negotiated by John M. Clayton, our Secretary of 
State, and Bulwer, the British minister to our country. It 
provided for the joint control by the United States and Great 
Britain of any ship canal, which should be constructed across 
the isthmus of either Nicaragua or Panama, and declared that 
neither nation should establish colonies in Central America. 
The treaty continued in force until 1901 when it was super- 
seded by the Hay-Pauncefote treaty. The agitation for an 



THE TAYLOK-FILLMOKE ADMINISTRATION 375 

isthmian canal was revived by the rush of population to Cali- 
fornia after the discovery of gold. 

478. Uncle Tom's Cabin. Uncle Tom's Gahin, a novel writ- 
ten (1852) by Hai-riet Beecher Stowe, vividly pictured moral, 
social, and domestic life under slavery. The story at first came 
out week by week in an anti-slavery newspaper, but it was 
later published in book form. Within two years over three 
hundred thousand copies were sold. The book exerted a pow- 
erful anti-slavery influence, and many boys who read Uncle 
Tom's Cabin in 1852 became soldiers in the Civil War. 

The novel, however, was defective in style and construction. 
It did not picture Southern life truthfully and the injustice 
of some of its presentations has been exposed and condemned. 
It, nevertheless, did much to liberate the slave, and probably 
no other novel ever exerted such a strong influence upon the 
political and civil institutions of a nation. 

479. Death of Three Great Men. The nation was soon called 
upon to lament the death of three distinguished leaders. Cal- 
houn, the great champion of the South, died at Washington, 
D. C. (March 31, 1850) ; Clay, one of America's foremost ora- 
tors and most disinterested patriots, died in the capital (June 
28, 1852) ; and Daniel Webster, the famous leader of the North, 
and the notable expounder of the Constitution, passed away at 
Marshfield, Massachusetts (October 24, 1852). 

480. Anti-Catholic Attacks — Knownothingism. The Nativists 
and other anti-Catholic elements (1852) joined forces with 
the fugitive German and Italian Revolutionists (1848-1849), 
and led by the ex-Carmelite Gavazzi, inaugurated a crusade 
of unparalleled anti-Catholic hatred and strife. When the 
Papal Nuncio, Monsignore Bedini, landed in New York (1852), 
Gavazzi traveled through the country, and everywhere set on 
foot a movement against him. He made charges which no ra- 
tional man could believe, and which were soon proved to be 
false. 

As a result of these calumnies, the Nuncio, in his prog- 



376 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ress through the country, was insulted, abused, burned in 
effigy, mobbed, and even threatened with assassination. In 
many places in New England, the anti-Catholic faction, headed 
by a Boston street preacher, who styled himself the Angel Ga- 
briel, ruthlessly destroyed Catholic churches and expelled 
peaceful Catholic settlers from their homes. 

During this excitement (1852) a network of secret societies 
sprang up, called the "Order of the Star-Spangled Banner." 
It started in New York, and because of its extreme secrecy, 
its members were called Know-nothings. The order advocated 
chiefly: that the time of residence required for naturalization 
be twenty-one years; that the Catholic religion be proscribed 
as a danger to the country ; that the Protestant Bible be made 
the foundation of all common school education. The Know- 
nothings destroyed many churches, convents, and private 
houses of Catholics, and shed much Catholic blood. They in- 
creased so rapidly that they elected the governors and legis- 
latures of a number of the states. In a few years, however, 
they became almost extinct, save in Maryland, where they 
contiruied to exist for a time. Here they gathered all the ruf- 
fians in and around Baltimore and attacked the first northern 
regiment marching to the front at the beginning of the Civil 
War, and thus made that city the most lawless of the 
Union. 

The methods of the Know-nothing party were revived in 
1894 by the American Protective Association. This was a 
secret society in the United States, not unlike the Know-noth- 
ings, which became a disturbing factor in most of the north- 
ern states during the period of 1891-97. Its purpose was in- 
dicated clearly enough by its open activity in arranging lec- 
tures by "ex-priests," distributing anti-Catholic literature, and 
opposing the election of Catholics to office. Unlike the Know- 
nothings, it never constituted a separate political party, but 
sought to influence existing parties toward selecting candi- 
dates friendly to its anti-Catholic views. 



THE TAYLOR-FILLMORE ADMINISTRATION 377 

481. The First Plenary Council. The First Plenary Council 
of the Church in the United States, which was assembled in 
Baltimore by Archbishop Kendrick (1852), was composed of 
six Archbishops and twenty-six Bishops. It proposed the erec- 
tion of several new dioceses, urged the importance of Catholic 
schools, and condemned secret societies, especially the Free- 
masons. 

482. The Campaign of 1852. In the campaign of 1852, the 
platforms of both of the old parties came out strongly in favor 
of the Compromise of 1850. The Whigs nominated General 
Winfield Scott, another hero of the Mexican War ; the Demo- 
crats, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, a second instance of 
a "dark horse"; and the Free-Soil party, John Parker Hale 
of New Hampshire. 



CHAPTER XXVIII 

FEANKLIN PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION 

DEMOCRAT— 1853-1857 

483. Pierce and King Are Elected. Franklin Pierce of New 
Hampshire, the Democratic nominee, was elected by a major- 
ity of two hundred and twelve votes over the Whig candidate, 
Winfield Scott. William R. King was elected Vice-president. 

The Whig party was overwhelmingly defeated at this elec- 
tion and it practically ceased to exist before the next presiden- 
tial campaign. This was because of the following facts : there 
was just then no great question before the people, except the 
slavery problem, and this was sectional (between the North 
and South), rather than partisan; the Whigs were held an- 
swerable for the odious Compromise Act, including the Fugitive 
Slave Law, since this act was introduced by a Whig leader 
and signed by a Whig President, though many of the Demo- 
crats had also supported the measures; the southern Whigs 
felt that they could no longer trust their party on the slavery 
question. The Free-Soilers humorously declared that the 
Whigs died of an attempt to swallow the Fugitive Slave Law. 

Franklin Pierce (1804-1869) had previously served, first as 
Representative and then as Senator. He had also been a briga- 
dier-general in the Mexican War. In his inaugural address 
he said that he would do all he could to carry out the pro- 
visions of the Compromise of 1850, and to keep peace on the 
slavery question. Yet, scarcely twelve months of his presi- 
dency had elapsed, when the country was thrown into a most 
exciting slavery agitation. 

484. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. Senator Douglas, chairman 
of the committee on territories, introduced the so-called Kan- 

378 



FRANKLIN PIERCE 's ADMINISTRATION 379 

sas Nebraska Bill, which jji-oposed the formation of the two 
territories of Kansas and Nebraska on the i^rinciple of "squat- 
ter sovereignty." In other words, he proposed that the set- 
tlers decide for theiuselves whether or not they would have 
slavery. Douglas's measures practically repealed the Missouri 
Compromise, and they were violently debated in Congress for 
nearly live months; they became law, however (1854), by a 
close vote in both houses and the signature of the President. 
The Kansas-Nebraska Bill, however, had many far-reaching 
results : 
(a) it deprived Congress of its authority over slavery in the 

territories ; 
(h) it occasioned a grave contest over Kansas; 
(c) it revived with renewed bitterness the slavery agitation, 

or, rather, quoting Sumner, it "set freedom and slavery 

face to face and bade them grapple." 
485. The Race to Kansas for Supremacy. The Kansas-Ne- 
braska act gave rise to a storm of indignation all over the 
North. The anti-slavery men declared that if the old Missouri 
Compromise could be swept away, nothing would be sacred 
enough to stand between slavery and free territory. No sooner 
was the Kansas-Nebraska act passed, than a race for political 
supremacy in Kansas was begun by both the pro-slavery and 
anti-slavery men. Before the year closed each party had plant- 
ed several settlements in Kansas. The pro-slavery men, or 
"Border Ruffians," as they were called, settled at Atchison 
and other points along the Missouri River, while the free-state 
men, called also "Abolitionists," or "Black Republicans," 
settled at Lawrence and other places south of the Kansas River. 
The excitement became intense. Each party was determined 
to win in the first election for a territorial legislature (1855). 
The pro-slavery men carried the election by means of fraud 
and violence, promptly adopted the Constitution of Missouri, 
which provided for slavery, and added to it laws by which 
any interference with slavery w^as to be severely punished. 



380 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



The free-state settlers, refusing to obey a government which 
had been established through fraud, met at Topeka and drew 
up a constitution of their own, which forbade slavery. 

Thus Kansas had two rival, hostil'e governments, each de- 
manding recognition by CoJigress and the President. It was 
clear that ''squatter sovereignty" could not solve peaceably 
the slavery question in the territories. The House of Repre- 
sentatives accepted the Topeka, or anti-slavery constitution, 




DISPERSING A KANSAS CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION 



and voted to admit Kansas as a free state. The Senate, however, 
did not concur in this action. The conflict in Kansas developed 
into Civil War, during which the two parties committed so 
many crimes of violence and bloodshed that no state in the 
Union, not even those that had been the scene of Indian wars, 
surpassed Kansas in the fierce strife of its early years ; hence, 
the territory became known as "Bleeding Kansas. ' 

At one time the pro-slavery party of Kansas framed what 
is known as the "Lecompton Constitution," making Kansas a 



FRANKLIN PIERCE 'S ADMINISTRATION 381 

slave state witlioiit submitting the constitution to a fair vote of 
the people. It was sent to Washington with an application for 
the admission of Kansas as a state. Buchanan was about to 
recommend the admission of Kansas under this constitution, 
when Douglas came forward and demanded that the consti- 
tution should first be submitted to a fair vote of the Kansas 
people. Douglas, by his noble stand for justice in behalf of 
the people of Kansas, now gained greatly in the estimation of 
the North. 

486. Filibustering- Expeditions — The Ostend Manifesto. The 
balance between the free and the slave states liaving been de- 
stroyed by the admission of California as a free state, south- 
erners began to covet Cuba, as they had coveted Mexico. A 
filibustering expedition, led by Narciso Lopez, set out (1851) 
from New Orleans to secure the island by capture, for the 
purpose of annexing it with its large slave population to the 
United States. The scheme ended in disaster and Lopez was 
executed. A similar filibustering expedition (1854), headed by 
William Walker, was made to Nicaragua. Walker seized the 
government and held it for two years, when he was finally 
overpowered and put to death. 

France and Great Britain, because of this filibustering ex- 
pedition against Cuba, suggested a convention, in which each 
of the three nations — England, France, and the United States 
- — should disclaim all intention to obtain possession of Cuba. 
The United States declined to enter the agreement, and later 
the American ministers to Great Britain, France, and Spain, 
acting under instructions from the President, met at Ostend, 
Belgium (1854), to consider the subject of annexing the island. 
The result was a proclamation, known as tlie "Ostend Mani- 
festo," in which was declared: that Cuba should belong to 
the Ignited States; that the government should offer Spain 
one hundred and twenty million dollars for the island; and 
that in case Spain should refuse to sell the island, it should be 
secured by force. 



382 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Spain would not sell the island and C-ongress would not 
adopt the policy of taking Cuba by force. Hence, nothing was 
effected by the "Ostend Manifesto." 

487. The Gadsden Purchase. Owing to the inaccuracy of the 
maps, trouble arose with Mexico in regard to the boundar}' 
line. General James Gadsden, our minister to Mexico, at length 
adjusted matters by negotiating a treaty (1853), by which 
the United States paid Mexico ten million dollars for the land 
lying directly south of the Gila River. This territory, which 
comprised about forty-seven thousand square miles, has since 
been known as the Gadsden Purchase. 

488. Perry's Treaty with Japan. In 1853 Commodore Mat- 
thew C. Perry, brother of the hero of Lake Erie, visited Japan, 
which till then had not admitted foreigners even for the pur- 
pose of trade. After a year's waiting. Perry succeeded in 
making a treaty (1854) by which certain Japanese ports were 
opened for trade with the United States. As a result of Perry 's 
expedition, Japan, within seven years, made treaties with nearly 
all the countries of Europe, and began the wonderful develop- 
ment which has marked that nation for the last half-century. 

489. First World's Fair in the United States. For the first 
time in our history, the nations of the world joined the United 
States (1853) in a great exposition of products in the Crystal 
Palace, New York. The Crystal Palace was built exclusively 
of iron and glass, and was visited by thousands from all parts 
of the world. The exposition tended to show that the United 
States might soon lead the rest of the world in practical in- 
ventions and the manufactures of labor-saving machinery. 

490. The Campaign of 1856. At the convention held in Phil- 
adelphia (1856), a new party, the National Republican, was 
formed of anti-slavery Democrats, anti-slavery Whigs, and 
Free-Soilers. Its platform demanded that Congress should not 
interfere with slavery where it existed; that Congress should 
prohibit in the territories "these twin relics of barbarism, 
polygamy and slavery"; and that Kansas should immediately 



FRANKLIN PIERCE 'S ADMINISTRATION 383 

be admitted as a free state. J. C. Fremont of California was 
the presidential nominee of the new party. The Democrats 
put forth James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, while the remnant 
of the Whigs (Silver Grays), and the Know-nothings selected 
Millard Fillmore of New York. 



CHAPTER XXIX 

JAMES BUCHANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 

DEMOCRAT— 1857-1861 

491, Buchanan and Breckenridge Are Elected. At the elec- 
tion of 1856, James Buchanan, the Democratic nominee, was 
elected as the fifteenth President by a majority of sixty elec- 
toral votes over John C. Fremont, the Republican candidate. 
John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky was chosen Vice-president. 

James Buchanan (1791-1868), a native of Pennsylvania, was 
sixty-six years old when called to the executive chair. In pub- 
lic life he had served as United States Senator and as minister 
to Russia and to England. Much was hoped from his election, 
since he declared in his inaugural address that the object of 
his administration woidd be to destroy sectional strife and 
settle the slavery question. However, the Dred Scott Decision, 
rendered by the Supreme Court only two days after his in- 
auguration, widened the alarming breach between the anti- 
slavery and pro-slavery sections of the Union, 

492. The Dred Scott Decision. A slave by the name of Dred 
Scott had lived for some time with his master, an army sur- 
geon, in the free state of Illinois and in the free territory of 
Minnesota. On returning to Missouri, Dred Scott sued his 
owner for his freedom, on the ground that liis residence on 
free soil had made him a free man. The case was finally trans- 
ferred from the State Court to the Supreme Court of the United 
States, which, through Chief Justice Taney, gave the "Dred 
Scott Decision." This declared that a negro was not a citizen 
of the United States, and could not sue in the United States 
Court; that a slave was not included in the term "person" as 
used in the Constitution ("no 'person' shall be deprived of 

384 



JAMES Buchanan's administration 385 

life, liberty, or property without due process of law"), but was 
only property, and Congress had no more right to exclude this 
kind of property from the territories than it had to exclude 
horses, cows, and other chattels. Therefore, slave-owners might 
take their slaves with them into any territory of the Union 
without forfeiting authority over them. Five of the eight 
other judges joined in Taney's opinion. Justices Curtis and 
McLean alone defended the rights of the negro as a citizen, 
as well as the power of Congress, to keep slavery out of the 
territories. Dred Scott was later freed by his master. Taney 
was bitterly denounced for expressions used in his decision. 
His statements, however, were not given as his own views 
about negro rights, but rather as the legal theories prevailing 
at the time of the Declaration of Independence. He had 
emancipated his own slaves and provided for their welfare. 

The Dred Scott Decision created intense excitement through- 
out the country. The slaveholders had on their side not only 
the law, as laid down by the highest court in the land, but 
also the President, who, weak and wavering, feared to oppose 
slavery lest the South should secede and destroy the Union, 
as it was threatening to do. 

The decision split the Democratic party in the North. Many 
of its members joined the Republicans in denouncing the Su- 
preme Court, rejected its decision, and determined to check the 
spread of slavery in the territories. 

493. The Lincoln-Douglas Debates — The Freeport Doctrine. 
The election of a successor to Senator Douglas in Illinois 
brought to the front Abraham Lincoln, the Republican candi- 
date for the senatorship against Douglas, who was the Demo- 
cratic choice. Lincoln challenged (1857) Douglas to a series 
of seven joint debates, at as many different places, on the 
following subjects: squatter sovereignty, the Dred Scott De- 
cision, and the extension of slavery into the territories. Both 
candidates exercised a powerful influence upon the vast audi- 
ences which gathered from far and near to hear the great 



386 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

problems of the day discussed by the ablest speakers of Illinois. 
Douglas, termed the '^Ijittle Giant of the "West," short and 
squarely built, spoke in rapid and powerful language and car- 
ried his listeners by storm; while Lincoln, styled "Honest 
Abe," tall, slender, and aAvkward, by his slow, calm, plain, 
unpretending, and humorous speech won the hearts of the 
people. 

The most notable of these debates was held at Freeport, 
where Lincoln asked Douglas four questions, the answers to 
which prevented Douglas from gaining the support of the 
southern Democracy for the presidential election two years 
later. Lincoln forced Douglas to choose between his favorite 
doctrine of popular sovereignty and the opinion expressed by 
the justice of the Supreme Court in the Dred Scott case. Doug- 
las tried to reconcile the two in what is known as the Free- 
port Doctrine, by saying that slavery could not exist in any 
territory if the people did not make local police regulations 
for its support, and therefore popular sovereignty would de- 
cide whether the territory should have slavery or not. Lin- 
coln showed that slavery could exist without these local regu- 
lations, and that popular sovereignty and the Dred Scott De- 
cision were incomj)atible. The South agreed with Lincoln and 
abandoned Douglas, although the people of Illinois by a nar- 
row margin re-elected Douglas senator. Lincoln's great 
speeches and bold stand for the right gave him a national rep- 
utation and made him a candidate for the presidency (1860). 

494. John Brown's Raid. John Brown, a Free-Soil extremist, 
collected a raiding party of about twenty men (1859) and sud- 
denly seized the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry in 
Virginia, with the avowed purpose of causing an insurrection 
of the slaves and supplying them with arms from the arsenal. 
His plan, however, met with complete failure. He was cap- 
tured, brought to a speedy trial, and hanged. Brown's fool- 
hard}^ undertaking increased the misunderstanding between the 
two sections. The South believed that among the northern 



JAMKS IUTCIIANAN'S ADMINISTRATION 



387 



Republicans thiTc was on foot a general plan to create a slave 
insurrection, and began to think of secession and independ- 
ence. The northern people, for the most part, condemned 
Brown's course, although they were in sympathy with his opposi- 
tion to slavery. 

495. The Panic of 1857. Shortly after Buchanan's inaugura- 
tion a great business (lcj)ression occurred. The discovery of 




lIAUFKli S i'ERliy AND VICINITY 



gold in California had increased wealth and stimulated in- 
vestments in railroads and in manufacturing enterprises. These 
investments were undertaken on too large a scale and the re- 
sult was a panic similar to that which the country had passed 
through twenty years before. Great suffering continued for 
two years, but later discoveries of gold in California, silver in 
Nevada, and oil in Pennsylvania, again revived business and 
restored prosperity. 



388 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Three free states were admitted during Buchanan's admin! 
istration. Minnesota came in as the thirty-second (1858), Ore^ 
gon as the thirty -third (1859), and Kansas as the thirty-fourthl] 
(1801). 

496. The Campaign of 1860. The thirty-three (1860) states 
now composing the Union entered upon the most exciting.' 
presideutial campaign since 1840. The principal issue was 
again the extension of slavery into the territories. There were 
four parties in the field. The Republicans nominated Abraham 
Lincoln of Illinois, on a platform demanding the repudiation i 
of the Dred Scott Decision, and the immediate admission of 
Kansas as a state under the Topeka Constitution. The south- 
ern Democrats named John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky, on 
a platform demanding that Congress should protect slavery 
in the territories, and that the United States should acquire 
Cuba. The northern Democrats chose Stephen A. Douglas of 
Illinois, and advocated "squatter sovereignty." The "Consti- 
tutional Union party," made up of the remnants of the Know- 
nothings in the South and of the Whigs in the North, selected 
John Bell of Tennessee. Their platform, ignoring the slavery 
question altogether, declaimed for "the Constitution of the coun- 
try, the union of all the states, and the enforcement of the 
laws." 

Both the Democrats and Republicans favored the building 
of a railway to the Pacific coast. 

497. Lincoln and Hamlin Are Elected— South Carolina Se^' 
cedes. At the election of 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Repub- 
lican candidate, was chosen as the sixteenth President by a 
plurality of the popular vote, and by a vote of one hundred 
and eighty electoral votes to the one hundred and twenty-three 
of the other three presidential nominees combined. He carried 
every northern state, except New Jersey. Hannibal Hamlin 
of Maine was elected Vice-president. No other election since 
that of Jefferson meant so much to the future of the country. 
It showed that the nation at large did not favor the extension 



"? o 





i 



JAMES Buchanan's administration 389 

of slavery and was inclined to take a final stand against it. 

Even during the campaign, the South threatened freely to 
secede from the Union in case of Lincoln's election. The 
Republicans said that this threat had been made for twenty 
years, and was but the cry of "wolf," but this time the "wolf" 
really came, for the South was in deadly earnest. "When the 
election of Lincoln was made known, South Carolina (December, 
1860) passed an ordinance of secession and publicly announced 
the fact to the world. 

The state based its right of secession on the old principle 
of states' rights, as expressed b^^ the Kentucky and Virginia 
Resolutions, the Hartford Convention, and the Nullification 
Ordinance of South Carolina. Secession and war were not, 
however, brought about so much by the states' rights question 
as by anti-slavery agitations, which led to the Kansas-Nebraska 
troubles, to the Dred Scott Decision, to John Brown's raid, 
and to the election of Lincoln as President. 

498. The Formation of the Southern Confederacy. Other 
slave states followed the lead of South Carolina and within 
six weeks (February, 1861), Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, 
Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas had seceded from the Union. 
These seven states, which included the great cotton belt of the 
South, at once sent delegates to a convention at Montgomery, 
Alabama (February, 1861), and established a provisional 
government, which they styled "The Confederate States of 
America. ' ' Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was chosen President 
and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice-president. Later 
in the year four other states — Virginia, North Carolina, Ten- 
nessee, and Arkansas — joined the Confederacy. The border 
states, Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware, for a 
while doubtful, remained loyal to the Union. The western 
counties of Virginia declared for the Union, and upon their 
request for admission, .were added to the Union as a state 
(1863) under the name of West Virginia. The authorities 
of the seceding states seized nineteen forts, and seven arsenals. 



390 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

situated within tlieir borders, together with a vast amount 
of arms and amnumition belonging to the United States 
goverinnent. Thus only four forts remained in the hands 
of federal troops — Pickens, Peiisacola ; Jefferson, Tortugas; 
Taylor, Key West; and Sumter, Charleston Harbor. 

At last the clash had come ; the Union was dissolved. South- 
ern Congressmen, judges, and other officers resigned their 
positions under the government and the Star Spangled Banner 
was hauled down throughout the eleven states thus far lost 
to the Union. Confederate papers published items from the 
Union under the head, "Foreign News." 

The Confederate President, Jefferson Davis (1808-1889), was 
a native of Kentucky. He had served in the Black Hawk War, 
and had been United States Congressman, and Secretary of 
War. He was, therefore, well qualified by political experience 
for his position. The Confederate Vice-president, Alexander 
Stephens, a great Whig leader (1812-1883), was a native of 
Georgia and he had served sixteen years in the House of Repre- 
sentatives. Although physically weak he was still very active 
and influential in Georgian politics. He tried to prevent 
Georgia from seceding, but, not succeeding in this effort, he 
followed the fortunes of his state. 

499. The Government and Secession. The government 
offered no resistance to the secessionists or to their seizure of 
its property, except a weak attempt to re-enforce Major 
Anderson at Fort Sumter. For this purpose the merchantman, 
Star of the West, was dispatched (-January, 1861) to Charleston 
Harbor. The vessel was, however, fired upon by Charleston gun- 
ners at Fort Moultrie and was forced to return. 

Buchanan, still irresolute, adopted no decided plan of action. 
While he declared that he did not believe in the constitutional 
right of secession, he also declared that he did not believe the 
national government had the right to use coercion. Neither 
the North nor the South w^anted war. The former demanded 
that the seceded states should come back into the Union. 



JAMES Buchanan's administration 391 

Congress made strenuous efforts to compromise the disputed 
slavery question; a peace conference was held in Washington 
and amendments to the Constitution were proposed — but to 
no avail. The policy of compromise, which had distinguished 
the political history of the country since the Revolutionary 
War, had now proved utterly futile. The nation looked 
anxiously forward to the fourth of March, and the great 
question was, "What will Lincoln do?" 



CHRONOLOGICAL EEVIEW 
1789—1861 

George Washington's Administration (1789-1797). 

1789. George Washington is inaugurated as the first Presi- 
dent (April 30). 

Rev. John Carroll is consecrated first Bishoj) of United 
States (November). 

1790. The seat of the government is removed to Philadelphia 
(November). 

1791. Vermont is admitted as a free state. 

1792. Kentucky is admitted as a slave state. 

Captain Gray discovers and names the Columbia River. 

1793. Eli Whitney invents the cotton-gin. 
The first Fugitive Slave Law is enacted. 
Rev. Stephen Badin is ordained first priest. 

1794. The Whiskey Insurrection occurs in western Penn- 
sylvania. 

General Anthony Wayne defeats the Ohio Indians. 

1795. John Jay concludes a treaty with Great Britain for 
the surrender of the northwestern forts, payment of 
American claims, etc. 

A treaty is made with Spain for a "Place of deposit." 

1796. Tennessee is admitted as a slave state. 

John Adams's Administration (1797-1801) — Federalist. 

1797. John Adams is inaugurated as the second President. 

1798. The Alien and Sedition Laws are enacted. 

1799. Washington dies at Mount Vernon (December 14). 

1800. The national capital is removed from Philadelphia 
to Washington, 

Spain cedes Louisiana territory to France. 
392 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 393 

Thomas Jefferson's Administration (1801-1809) — Democratic- 
Republican. 

1801. Thomas Jefferson is inaugurated as the third Presi- 
dent. 

The Avar v\^ith Tripoli begins. 

1802. Ohio is admitted as a free state. 

1803. Louisiana territory is purchased from France for 
fifteen million dollars. 

1804. Decatur destroys frigate Philadelphia (February 15). 
Hamilton is killed by Burr (July 11). 

1805. Lew^is and Clark made an expedition to the Northwest. 
A treaty of peace is made with Tripoli. 

1806. Napoleon publishes the Berlin Decree. 

1807. Great Britain publishes the Orders in Council ; Napo- 
leon issues the Milan Decree. 

Henry Clay enters Congress. 

Congress passes the Embargo Act. 

Robert E\ilton invents the first successful steamboat. 

The British frigate Leopard attacks the American 

frigate Chesapeake. 

1808. African slave trade is abolished. 

James Madison's Administration (1809-1817) — Democratic-Re- 
publican. 

1809. James Madison is inaugurated as the fourth President. 
The Non-Intercourse Act is passed. 

1811. General "William H. Harrison defeats the Indians 
under Tecumseh at Tippecanoe. 

The American ship President wins a naval victory 

over the British Little Belt. 

Astor establishes a trading post at Astoria, at the 

mouth of the Columbia. 

Calhoun enters Congress. 

1812. Louisiana is admitted as a slave state. 
War is declared against England (June 18). 
Hull surrenders Detroit to the British (August 8). 



394 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Essex captures British sloop Alert (August 13). 
The Constitution captures the Gucrriere (August 19). 
The Uuited States sloop Wasp captures the British 
brig Frolic (October). 
Uusuccessful attempts are made to invade Canada. 

1813. "Wel)ster enters Congress. 

The United States ship Hornet captures the British 
sloop Peacock. 

The United States frigate Chesapeake is captured by 
the British frigate Shannon. 

Unsuccessful attempts are again made to invade 
Canada. 

Perry defeats the British on Lake Erie (September 10) . 
American privateers injure British commerce. 
The British are defeated in the Battle of the Thames 
(October 5). 

1814. Jackson defeats the Indians at Horseshoe Bend 
(March 27). 

General Brown defeats the British at Chippewa 
(July 5). 

Brown defeats the British at Lundy's Lane (July 25). 
The British capture the capital and burn the govern- 
ment buildings (August 24). 

The Hartford Convention assembles (December 15). 
The treaty of peace is signed at Ghent, Belgium 
(December 24). 

1815. Jackson defends New Orleans (January 8). 
Decatur brings the Barbary States to terms. 
Archbishop Carroll dies. 

1816. Indiana is admitted as a free state. 
The first protective tariff is passed. 
The Second Bank is chartered. 

James Monroe's Administration (1817-1825) — Democratic-Re- 
publican. 

1817. James Monroe is inaugurated as the fifth President. 
Mississippi is admitted as a slave state. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 395 

William Cullen Biyaiit begins his work as poet aiul 

editor. 

The Erie Canal, extending from Albany to Buffalo, 

is begun. 

Jackson subdues the Seminoles in Florida. 

1818. Illinois is admitted as a free state. 

A treaty is made with England, providing joint occu- 
pancy of the Oregon country. 

1819. Florida is purchased from Spain for five million 
dollars. 

Alabama is admitted as a slave state. 
The first steamboat. The Savannah, crosses the Atlantic. 
Washington Irving begins his work as historian, 
novelist, and descriptive writer, 
18120. The Missouri Compromise is passed. 
Maine is admitted as a free state. 
Monroe is almost unanimously re-elected. 
James Fenimore Cooper begins his work as novelist. 

1821. Missouri is admitted as a slave state. 
Mexico declares her independence of Spain. 

1822. The American Colonization Society founds Liberia in 
Africa. 

1828. President Monroe declares the Monroe Doctrine. 

1824. Lafayette visits America. 

Western Indian Missions are renewed. 
A new Protective Tariff Bill is passed. 
John Q. Adams's Administration (1825-1829) — National Re- 
publican. 

1825. John Q. Adams is inaugurated as the sixth President. 
The Erie Canal is opened. 

1826. Jefferson and John Adams die (July 4). 
Nathaniel Hawthorne begins his work as writer of 
romance. 

1827. The first passenger railroad, extending from Baltimore 
to Ellicott's Mills, is in construction. 



396 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Edgar A, Poe begins his work as poet and story-teller. 

1828. The Tariff of Abominations is passed by Congress. 
Andrew Jackson's Administration (1829-1837) — Democratic. 

1829. Andrew Jackson is inaugurated as the seventh 
President. 

First Provincial Council is held in Baltimore. 
The Spoils System is introduced. 

1830. Joseph Smith founds the sect of Mormons. 

Oliver W. Holmes and Henry W. Longfellow begin 

their work as poets and prose writers. 

Webster and Hayne hold their famous debate in 

Congress. 

1831. James Monroe dies (July 4). 

William Lloyd Garrison begins the Abolitionist agita- 
tion by the publication of the "Liberator." 

1832. Charles Carroll of Carrollton dies. 

General Scott defeats the Indians in the Black Hawk 

War. 

Congress passes a new tariff act. 

South Carolina passes the Nullification Ordinance. 

Jackson is re-elected. 

1833. Clay's Tariff Compromise is passed. 

Jackson removes the public funds from the National 
Bank. 

1835. A great fire occurs in New York City (December). 
George Bancroft begins his work as American his- 
torian. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson begins his work as a writer. 

1836. General Houston defeats Santa Anna at San Jacinto. 
Texas declares her independence. 

Arkansas is admitted as a slave state. 
James Madison dies (June 28). 

1837. Michigan is admitted as a free state. 

The United States acknowledges Texan independence. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 397 

Martin Van Buren's Presidency (1837-1841) — Democratic. 

Martin Van Buren is inaugurated as the eighth 
President. 

A great business panic takes place. 
A rebellion occurs in Canada. 
1838. Catholic missions are established in Oregon. 

1840. Congress passes the sub-treasury bill. 
Harrison-Tyler Administrations (1841-1845) — Whigs. 

1841. William H. Harrison is inaugurated as the ninth 
President. 

Father De Smet establishes a mission among the 

Flathead Indians. 

Harrison dies (April 4). 

Tyler assumes office as the tenth President. 

Congress repeals the Sub-treasury Bill. 

1842. Dorr's Rebellion occurs in Rhode Island. 

The northeastern boundary of the United States is 
fixed by the Webster-Ashburton Treaty with England. 
James Russell Lowell begins his work as poet and 
essayist. 

1844. The Anti-rent difficulties occur in New York. 
Samuel F. B. Morse erects from Baltimore to Washing- 
ton the first successful electric telegraph line in the 
world. 

Native American riots occur in Philadelphia. 
The Mormons set out for Utah ; Smith is killed. 

1845. Florida is admitted as a slave state. 
Texas is admitted as a slave state. 

James K. Polk's Administration (1845-1849) — Democratic. 

James K. Polk is inaugurated as the eleventh Presi- 
dent. 

1846. The Mexicans are defeated by Taylor in the battles 
of Palo Alto and Resaea de la Palma. 

War with Mexico is declared. 

Elias Howe invents the sewing machine. 



398 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Iowa is admitted as a free state. 

Fremont conquers California. 

Kearny conquers New Mexico. 

Taylor captures Monterey. 

Agassiz begins his scientific work as geologist in 

America. 

By treaty with England the Oregon boundary is fixed 

at 49°. 

Mary Immaculate is chosen the patroness of the 

United States. 

1847. Taylor defeats Santa Anna at Buena Yista. 
Scott takes Vera Cruz and the City of Mexico. 

1848. A treaty of peace is made with Mexico at Guadaloupe 
Hidalgo. 

Gold is d^covered in California. 
"Wisconsin is admitted as a free state. 
John Q. Adams dies (February 23). 

Taylor-Fillmore Administrations (1849-1853) — Whigs. 

1849. Zachary Taylor is inaugurated as the twelfth Presi- 
dent. 

Congress organizes the Department of tlie Interior 
to provide for the management of the new territories. 
A struggle for the admission of California takes place. 
Francis Parkman begins his vv^ork as American his- 
torian. 

William H. Seward, Jeflt'erson Davis, and Charles 
Sumner enter the Senate. 

1850. President Taylor dies (July 9). 

Millard Fillmore assumes office as the thirteenth 

President. 

California is admitted as a free state. 

The Clayton-Bulwer Treaty is made. 

John C. Calhoun dies (March 31). 

Personal Liberty Laws are passed. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 39!) 

The Underground Railway is organized. 

1851. Lopez and his filibustering companions are executed 
at Havana. 

1852. The First Plenary Council meets at Baltimore. 
Henry Clay dies (June 28). 

Daniel Webster dies (October 24). 
Uncle Tom's Cahin is published. 
Franklin Pierce's Administration (1853-1857) — Democratic. 

1853. Franklin Pierce is inaugurated as the fourteenth 
President. 

The Gadsden Purchase is made. 

A World 's Fair is held at New York. 

The Know-nothing party is organized. 

1854. The Kansas-Nebraska bill is passed. 
The Civil War in Kansas begins. 

Commodore Matthew C. Perry negotiates a treaty of 
trade with Japan. 
James Buchanan's Administration (1857-1861) — Democratic. 

1857. James Buchanan is inaugurated as the fifteenth 
President. 

The Dred Scott Decision is made by the Supreme 

Court. 

A great business panic occurs. 

1858. The Lincoln-Douglas debates take place. 
Minnesota is admitted as a free state. 

A civil war in Kansas ends in the framing of the 
constitution forbidding slavery. 

1859. John Browm's Raid excites the country. 
Oregon is admitted as a free state. 

1860. South Carolina passes an ordinance of secession. 

The Democratic party is split into a northern and 
a southern division. 

1861. The Southern Confederacy is formed, and Jefferson 
Davis is chosen President. 

Kansas is admitted as a free state. 



PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
CHAPTER XXX 

ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 
REPUBLICAN— 1861-1865 
THE WAR TO THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBURG (1861-1863) 

500. Extent and Sig-nificance of the Civil War. The period 
of the Civil War extends from the breaking out of the war in 
1861 to the surrender of the Confederate armies in 1865. It in- 
cludes the events of the gigantic conflict between the northern 
and the southern sections of the Union, w^hich ended in the per- 
petuation of the Union and the abolition of slavery. 

501. Lincoln's Inauguration. Rumors of a plot to assassinate 
Lincoln induced him, on the advice of his friends, to make a 
quick and secret night journey through Baltimore to the- 
Federal capital, where he was inaugurated the next morning 
(March 4, 1861) without any disturbance. Perhaps never 
before and never since was a President's inaugural address 
so eagerly looked forw^ard to, as was that of Abraham Lincoln, 
our first Republican President. 

In simple words he declared that his aim was to preserve 
the Union, which should be perpetual and from which no state 
could lawfully withdraw; that he had no intention of inter- 
fering with slavery in the states where it existed ; and that he 
would faithfully execute the laws of the Union in all the states, 
and hold, occupy, and possess all property and places belonging 
to the government. He closed wdth an appeal to the South 
in the words: "You have no oath registered in Heaven to 

400 




LINCOLN AND HIS SON "TAD- 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 401 

destroy the government, while I shall have a most solemn one 
to preserve, protect, and defend it." The President's address 
found great favor in the North, since it made the saving of the 
Union, instead of the opposition to slavery, the great issue. 
Even Douglas, with his numerous followers, heartily applauded 
and enthusiastically supported Lincoln in his noble purpose 
of preserving the Union. Though the people had not yet 
learned to trust the judgment of this untutored President from 
the West, his election proved to be most fortunate, and Lincoln 
is now ranked among the greatest of our Presidents. 

For his Cabinet, Lincoln chose only men of distinguished 
ability. In this choice, as also in his inaugural address, he 
planned to unite the political factions of the Union. He 
selected : William H. Seward of New York, a former Whig 
and his greatest rival for the presidency, as Secretary of State ; 
Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, a Free-Soil Democrat, and also a 
strong candidate for the presidency, as Secretary of the 
Treasury, and Edwin M. Stanton of Ohio, a Democrat Unionist, 
as Secretary of War. All the other members, except one, were 
chosen from the states bordering the Confederate section, which 
were wavering in their allegiance to the Union. Naturally, these 
advisers, like those of Washington, did not all agree with the 
President on the great questions before the country. With the 
completion of Lincoln's Cabinet the two governments stood face 
to face, each waiting for the other to strike the first blow. 

502. Comparative Strength and Resources of the Opposing 
Sections. Before taking up the study of the Civil War it will 
be well to compare the advantages and resources of the two 
sections. 

The twenty-three Union states had a population of about 
twenty-two million, of which half a million were slaves, while 
the eleven Confederate states had a population of about nine 
million, and of these three and one-half million were slaves. 
The slaves carried no arms, but they could furnish the armies 
with supplies and work in the camp. 



402 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The North, owing to her industrial system, had more wealth 
and a greater number of able business men than the South, 
where the money and business enterprises were chiefly in the 
hands of a comparatively small number of planters. 

The North controlled the navy, had dockyards, and pos- 
sessed the financial ineans for building and repairing warships, 
with which it could shut up southern ports against aid from 
abroad ; while the fSouth, having put nearly all her energies 
into the cultivation of rice, cotton, sugar, and tobacco, had 
few sailors and no navy, and possessed but small means of 
building ships. 

In factories which supplied the soldiers with everything from 
blankets to cannon, as also in resources for food supplies, the 
North greatly surpassed the South, which was almost entirely 
dependent upon the North and European countries for its 
necessities of life. Hence, when severed from the North and 
shut off from Europe by blockaded ports, the South was no 
longer able to exchange its staple crop, cotton, for the things 
it needed, and in consequence was seriously crippled. 

The South had the majority of the best-known officers of the 
regular army who, with Jefferson Davis at the head, formed 
a group of talented West Point graduates. The southern 
people, as a rule, showed special aptitude for military pursuits, 
owing to their outdoor agricidtural life, constant use of fire- 
arms, and skill in horsemanship. The North, on the other 
liand, was a land of business men, and, with the exception 
of General Scott and a few other military leaders who remained 
loyal to the Union, was at first far inferior to the South in 
respect to experienced soldiers. The "boys in blue" found 
it a stupendous task to transform themselves into trained 
soldiers. 

The South, having obtained possession of large quantities 
of arms and ammunition, was prepared for war, while the 
northern people at large did not believe that war would really 
be brought about, and were entirely unprepared. John B. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLiN 's ADMINISTRATION 40!) 

Floj'd, Buehanairs Secretary of War, was a zealous secessionist 
and by his orders an immense quantity of muskets, cannon, 
amnumition, and other war stores had been transferred (1860) 
from northern to southern arsenals. 

The South could fight on her own soil near the sources of 
supplies. Her soldiers were familiar with every stream, hill, 
road, and wood. 

On the whole, the North and South were more evenly 
matched than is usually supposed. As to courage, ability, 
self-sacrifice, and loyalty to cause, the two sections were equal. 
The reason for the failure of the one and the success of the 
other may be found in the superior number of soldiers, in the 
greater resources, and in the industrial capacity of the 
North. 

The backwardness of the South in wealth and population must 
be attributed to slavery. The prosperity of the North was 
grounded on free and intelligent labor. The farmer and the 
working man labored with energy because the fruits of their 
efforts were their own. 

The rich man of the South did not need to work, and 
could devote his time to politics, literature, and social enjoy- 
ment. The slaves, laboring under compulsion and having 
nothing to gain by industry, worked slowly, carelessly, and 
stupidly. The poor among the whites, who to a great extent 
had grown up in belief that work was a disgrace and a sign 
of slavery, thus became a shiftless and thriftless portion of 
the community in the South. 

503. Causes of the Civil War. Diverging interpretations of 
the (Constitution, different systems of labor in the North and 
the South, lack of intercourse between the two sections, and the 
increase of territory, led to the three great remote causes of 
the Civil War : 

(a) slavery; 

( b ) the doctrine of states ' rights ; 

(c) the tariff question. 



404 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

The immediate causes of the Civil War were : 
((/) the election of Lincoln; 
(6) the secession of the southern states; 
(c) the attack on Fort Sumter. 

504. Scene of the War. The war was fought principally 
south of Mason and Dixon's line and the Ohio River. The 
physical geography of the field of war had much to do with 
the outcome of the conflict. In the East, the South had the 
advantage for the following reasons : 

(a) the approach to Richmond from the north was rendered 
difficult by a number of bridgeless rivers, dangerous 
swamps, and dense forests ; 

(h) an attack on the city from the south would require a navy; 

(c) an attempt to capture it from the west would expose the 

Union army to the risk of being cut off from communi- 
cations and supplies; 

(d) the Shenandoah Valley was a sheltered highway, along 

which the Confederates could proceed and thence cross 
the Potomac to invade Maryland, and thus endanger the 
capital. 
The Shenandoah Valley afforded little advantage to the Union 

forces because its westward trend would carry them farther 

away from Richmond, the farther south they proceeded. 
In the West, the North had the following advantages: 

(a) broad waterways, such as the Tennessee and the Cumber- 
land rivers, led from the Union soil into the very heart 
of the Confederacy, while the Mississippi River afforded 
an opportunity for cutting the Confederacy in two. The 
South, lacking river steamers as well as the means to 
build them, was obliged to yield these advantages to the 
North ; 

(6) The North had control of Chesapeake Bay, and by its 
waters Union troops and supplies could be moved on 
toward Richmond. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



405 



FIRST YEAR OF THE WAR— 1861 

505. The Capture of Fort Sumter by the South. On the 

morning following his inauguration, Lincoln received word 
from Robert Anderson, who was in command of Fort Sumter, 
that without re-enforcements he could not hold the fort much 
longer. The Confederate forces, commanded by Beauregard, 
a distinguished soldier of the Mexican War, anticipating the 
re-enforcement of Fort Sumter, bombarded the garrison. 
Anderson, after a brave stand of thirty-four hours, made an 
honorable surrender (April 14, 1861) and embarked for New 
York, carrying with him the tattered flag under which he and 
his men had fought. 






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The news of the capture of 
Fort Sumter electrified the 
whole country and served to 
consolidate the North and the 
South against each other. The 
remaining slave states — Vir- 
ginia, Arkansas, North Caro- 
lina, and Tennessee, now 
speedily joined the Confed- 
eracy. Maryland and Dela- 
ware showed little disposition 
to link their fortunes with the 
southern cause, and Kentucky and Missouri wished to remain 
neutral. The loss of Virginia, owing to its rank, population, 
wealth, and geographical position was a serious blow to the 
North. This state took with her two great military leaders — 
Robert E. Lee and Thomas Jackson — as well as the arsenals at 
Harper's Ferry, and the navy -yard. This loss, how^ever, was 
partly repaired by the fact that the counties of Virginia west of 
the mountains, not finding slavery profitable and being closely 
united in interest with Pennsylvania refused to join the Con- 
federacy. These counties banded together and formed a state 



FORT SUMTER 



406 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

which was later admitted to the Union as West Virginia. "With 
the support of Generals McClellan and Rosecrans, who defeated 
the Confederate troops and drove them from the region, the 
new state maintained her independence from Virginia. 

After the surrender of Fort Sumter the "Star Spangled 
Banner" was loyally flung to the breeze everywhere through 
the North, while the Confederacy displayed as freely its new 
standard, tlie Stars and Bars. 

506. First Call for Volunteers. IMost of the United States 
arsenals and forts had been seized by the seceding states ; 
national authority had been defied at Fort Sumter; and 
Washington, being so near the Confederate states, was speedily 
becoming an unsafe place for the government. The Confeder- 
ate Secretary of War declared that before the first of May 
the Confederate flag would float over the dome of the capitol. 

On the day following the evacuation of Fort Sumter, Presi- 
dent Lincoln called for seventy-five thousand volunteers to 
serve for three months. Four times that number ofl^ered their 
services. The Sixth Massachusetts volunteer regiment began 
its march to the capital the same day. While passing through 
Baltimore (April 19) it was attacked by a mob and several 
soldiers were killed. This was the first bloodshed of the war. 
It occurred on the eighty-sixth anniversary of the skirmish 
at Lexington. 

507. Financial Measures of Congress. After Lincoln's first 
call for volunteers, Congress met in extra session and authorized 
the President to call for additional volunteers and to increase 
the navy and regular army. It also greatly raised the tariff 
(1861) for the purpose of adding to tlu^ revenue; levied heavy 
internal taxes for the support of the war; adopted a Homestead 
Bill, which offered portions of public domain to heads of 
families, on condition of their living upon it and cultivating 
it for five years; and voted the construction of the Union 
Pacific Railroad, for which purpose money and large tracts 
of land were granted by the Federal government. Further- 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 



407 



more, at the suggestion of Secretaiy Chase, Congress voted 
that money be borrowed and that tlie government issue paper 
money or "greenbacks." As the war contiiuu'd, gokl was soon 
at a premium and "greenbacks" so decreased in value that 
in 1864 a dollar note was worth only thirty-five cents in gokl. 
508. Organization of the Contending Armies. Lincoln, early 
in May, nuule a second call for forty-two thousand volunteers 
to serve for three years, and for forty thousand men for the 
regular army and luivy. Thus the strength of the Union force 
Avas raised to one hundred and eighty-three thousand men. 




WASHINGTON AND VICINITY 



This army was placed under the command of General Winfield 
Scott and distributed on a line of two thousand miles, passing 
along the Potomac, across northern Virginia, Kentucky, 
Missouri, Iiulian Territory, to New Mexico. Washington was 
the fortified center. 

President Davis of the Confederacy also called for volunteers, 
and his call was obeyed as eagerly as President Lincoln's. The 
Confederate army numbered about one hundred and fifty 



408 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

thousand and was under the direction of General Beauregard. 
With Richmond as its fortified center it held the country south 
of the Potomac and all the strong fortifications along the 
Mississippi and the Mexican border. 

Each army had the twofold object of protecting its own 
capital and of capturing the capital of the enemy. Hence each 
section immediately sought to make its own capital secure. 

509. Counteracting Proclamations. To counteract Lincoln's 
call for volunteers, Davis issued (April 17) a proclamation 
otTering letters of marque and reprisal to all ship-owners who 
would prey upon northern commerce. 

President Lincoln responded (April 19) by a proclamation 
declaring the ports of the Confederacy to be in a state of block- 
ade, and Union vessels were stationed outside the harbor of all 
southern ports to prevent foreign commerce. This proclamation 
and act constituted a declaration of war. 

The blockade of the ports in the South was rendered so com- 
plete within the course of a year that, with the exception of an 
occasional "blockade-runner," no vessel could enter or leave 
a southern port. Consequently, the main source of income 
to the South — the sale of cotton — was now cut off, and the 
procuring of ammunition and arms was rendered very difficult. 
Great masses of cotton, piled up along the sea coast, sold for 
four cents a pound, although the manufacturers in England 
would have paid two dollars and fifty cents per pound for it. A 
ton of salt, which could be purchased for seven dollars in the 
West Indies, sold for fifteen hundred dollars in Richmond. 

The South, notwithstanding, obtained blockade-runners 
which were constructed chiefly in England. These vessels 
were of light draught and could easily move through channels 
too shallow for their pursuers. They were painted a dull 
gray, to make them less conspicuous. With these vessels the 
southerners could, under cover of night, steal in and out of 
their ports carrying away cotton and bringing back military 
stores and other supplies. 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



409 



510. Foreign Attitude. The Union and the Confederacy each 
counted on sympathy from Europe. The Union founded her 
hopes on the fact that England, having led the way in abolish- 
ing slavery, vrould now support her cause. She was dis- 
appointed, however, for England and France recognized the 
Confederacy as a belligerent power, entitled to all the rights 
of war, though they did not acknowledge her as a nation. The 
Confederacy from the first hoped and expected foreign recog- 
nition and assistance. There were hundreds of factories in 
England and France which depended upon cotton from the 
South, and hence southern- 
ers believed that, rather than 
suffer injury to their cotton 
industry, these nations would 
recognize the independence 
of the Confederacy, and lend 
money to it. But English 
mechanics and factory hands 
were willing to suffer rather 
than to aid slavery. The re- 
lations of the Union with 
Germany and Russia during 

the war were more friendly; both nations displayed sympathy 
with her cause. 

511. The Battle of Bull Run. The northern people soon 
became impatient at the delay in opening aggressive move- 
ments against the South. Encouraged by the successes of 
McClellan in West Virginia, they wanted to end the war in 
three months. They believed the capture of the Confederate 
capital would crush the Confederacy, and ' ' On to Richmond ! ' ' 
became the cry of the people. General Scott, influenced by 
public opinion, against his military judgment ordered an 
advance to be made under General McDowell. McDowell, 
with about thirty thousand men, marched from Washington 
toward Richmond. He met the Confederate forces, some 





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BULL RUN AND MANASSAS 



410 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

twenty thousand strong, under General Beauregard, at the 
village of Manassas Junction, near a small branch of the 
Potomac in Virginia, known as Bull Run. At first, success 
favored the Union troops ; in the afternoon, however, the Union 
army, composed chiefly of raw recruits, was thrown into a 
panic and fled in great disorder toward Washington. The 
capital was panic-stricken from fear of falling into Confeder- 
ate hands ; but the Confederate army had suffered too severely 
to follow up its advantage. While the Union troops were 
fiercely charging, the Confederate brigade under Thomas 
Jackson was still firmly holding its ground. Seeing this, the 
Confederate general, Bee, rallying his division cried, "Look 
at Jackson 's brigade ; they stand like a stone wall ! ' ' Thus 
originated the title "Stonewall" Jackson, by which the brave 
general was ever after known. 

The South was overjoyed at the success of the battle and 
many thought that the war was practically decided. But the 
North, though greatly humbled, was more benefited by her 
failure than the South by her success. The North learned two 
lessous: that the war was certain to last longer than three 
months ; and that an undisciplined army is scarcely better 
than a mob. With grim determination she now put forth all 
her energies in preparation for the great struggle. 

The aged Scott now retired and General George B. McClellan 
was called from West Virginia to take command of the Union 
army. He organized the raw volunteers and during nine 
months of drill and discipline changed them into the mag- 
nificent Ai-iiiy of the Potomac, about one hundred and fifty 
thousand strong. The Confederates also were strengthening 
their Hues and drilling their men. 

512. War in the Border States. In the border states the 
peoj)le were divided in opinion and enlisted in both armies. 
Armed bands swept through the country, plundering and 
murdering those who favored the opposite party. In Missouri 
Captain Lyon broke up the Confederate camp near St. Louis 



ABRAHAM Lincoln's administkatiun 411 

and secured the arsenal for the Union. At Booneville he 
defeated (June) a force of Confederates who invaded the state 
from Arkansas. The Federals under Sigel were next defeated 
(July) at Carthage by the Confederates under Price. The 
Federal forces under Lyon were defeated (August) at Wilson's 
Creek, near Springfield, and Captain Lyon was killed. The 
Federal Irish brigade, in coniiuand of Colonel Mulligan, after 
a gallant three days' resistance against a far superior Con- 
federate force under Price, was obliged to surrender (Septem- 
ber) at Lexington, on the Missouri. A Federal detachment 
from Illinois, commanded by General Grant, though at first 
successful, was finally obliged to retire (November) before 
a superior Confederate force at Belmont. The Federals at 
last drove the Confederates iiito Arkansas, thus securing 
Missouri for the Union. Kentucky, also ravaged by hostile 
forces, declared for the Union (September). General Fremont, 
in chief command of the war in the West, was superseded by 
General Hunter who, after a fortnight, was in turn superseded 
by Henry W. Halleck. 

513. Union Defeats — Events Along the Coast. A detachment 
of General Butler's troops was defeated at Big Bethel, near 
Fortress Monroe on York peninsula, while another Federal 
force of about twenty thousand was outnumbered and defeated 
at Ball's Bluff, near Harper's Ferry (October). The Union 
general. Baker, a popular senator from Oregon and a brilliant 
orator, was among the killed. 

The combined Federal naval and land forces captured Hat- 
teras Inlet and Fort Hatteras ; another expedition captured 
Port Royal and occupied the islands between Charleston and 
Savarniah ; another saved Fort Pickens, near Pensacola ; while 
a Federal fleet (September) took possession of Ship Island, 
at the mouth of the Mississippi. 

514. The Trent Affair. In the autumn of .1861, President 
Davis sent two commissioners. Mason and Slidell, to Europe 
to urge the Confederate cause. They ran the blockade at 



412 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Charleston, and embarked at Havana on the English steamer 
Trent. Captain Wilkes of the United States sloop of war San 
Jacinto overhauled the Trent and took from it by force the two 
commissioners. England, considering this action an insult to 
her flag, made a sharp demand for the release of the prisoners 
and sent troops to Canada. The United States government 
immediately disavowed the act of Captain Wilkes and placed 
the commissioners on a British ship, in which they were con- 
veyed to their destination. Thus war with England was averted. 
It was just before the "Trent affair'.' that President Lincoln 
sent Archbishop Hughes and Thurlow Weed to France and 
England to help the cause of the Union and to avert the danger 
of foreign war. The spirit in which the great Archbishop 
performed his mission is well expressed in his own words : 
"I made known to the President that if I should come to 
Europe it would not be as a partisan of the North more than 
of the South ; that I should represent the interests of the South 
as well as the North ; in short, the interests of the United States, 
just the same as if they had never been distracted by the 
present Civil War." 

515. Summary of 1861. At the end of the year 1861 the 
Confederacy had seized most of the forts and arsenals in the 
South ; had won the two great battles of the year — Bull Run 
and Wilson's Creek — and had also been victorious in several 
other engagements. 

On the other hand, the Union had gained many advantages. It 
(a) had gained possession of places along the coast — Fort 

Monroe, Hatteras Inlet, Port Eoyal, Fort Pickens, Ship 

Island — from which points a complete blockade of the 

southern ports was effected; 
(6) had gained several minor victories and saved Missouri, 

Kentucky, Maryland, and West Virginia to the Union ; 
(c) had thrown the whole South into a state of siege by means 

of the land forces on the north and west and a vigilant 

blockading squadron along the coast ; 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



413 



(d) had scarcely felt the effects of the war on its commerce 
and industry. 
At the close of the first year of the war neither side could 
claim any decided advantage. 



IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1861 



Name of 
Battle 


Place Where 
Fought 


Date 


Commanding 

General of 

Union Army 


Commanding 
General of Con- 
federate Army 


Bull Run 

Wilson'sCreek 


Bull Run, Va. 
Wilson's Creek, 


July 21 

Aug. 10 


Brig.-Gen. T. Mc- 
Dowell 
Brig.-General N. 


Gen. J. E. John- 
ston 
Brig.-Gen. B. Mc- 


Ball's Bluff. . 
Belmont 


Mo. 
Ball's Bluff, Va. 
Belmont, Mo. 


Oct. 21 

Nov. 7 


Lyon 
Gen. C. P. Stone 
Brig.-Gen. U. S. 

Grant 


Culloch 
Gen. N. G. Evans 
Mai.-Gen. L. L. 

Polk 



SECOND YEAR OF THE WAR — 1862 

516. Lincoln's Strategic Plans. Lincoln at the very begin- 
ning of the war stated that four things were essential to 
ultimate success, namely : 

(a) the defense of Washington and the capture of Richmond; 
(&) the prevention of the border states from seceding; 

(c) the opening of the Mississippi River in order to give the 

West communication with the sea and cut off the Con- 
federacy from western supplies; 

(d) an effective blockade of the southern ports for the purpose 

of preventing European supplies from reaching the 

South. 
During the first year of the war the following of Lincoln's 
plans were carried out : 
(a) Washington was well fortified ; 
(&) the neutral border states were prevented from seceding; 

and 
(c) the southern ports were fairly well blockaded. 

Consequently, the Federal plan of operation whicii remained 
to be accomplished during the second year of the war was 



414 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tliToefold : the opening of the Mississippi River; the more 
thorough blockade of the southern ports, and the capture 
of Richmond. 

THE CAMPAIGN IN THE WEST 

517. Confederate Lines of Defense. The Confederate line of 
defense extended from Columbus, on the Mississippi, through 
Kentucky to Cumberland Gap, in the Alleghany Mountains. 
General Albert Sydney Johnston, commander of all the Con- 
federate forces in the West, with about fifteen thousand men, 
had his headquarters at Bowling Green; General Polk, with 
about one hundred and twenty-one thousand men, held Colum- 
bus and the surrounding points ; while Brigadier General 
Zollicoffer, with about six thousand men, held Cumberland 
Gap. To break this line was the object of the Federal forces 
that w^ere under the command of General Halleck at St. Louis 
and General Buell at Louisville. In a short time these two 
generals mustered a well-armed and thoroughly equipped 
army of about one hundred thousand men. Besides these land 
forces the Federals also had a good river fleet. 

518. Federal Victory at Mill Springs — Capture of Forts 
Henry and Donelson. General Thomas made the first break 
in the Confederate lines. He attacked and totally defeated 
Zollicoffer at Mill Springs, where he secured prisoners, guns, 
and valuable military stores. The result of this battle was the 
capture of Cumberland Gap, which opened the way to eastern 
Tennessee. 

To control the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers, the Con- 
federates had erected Forts Henry and Donelson. Commodore 
Foote with a flotilla of ironclad gunboats captured (February) 
Fort Henry, whereupon the Confederates escaped to Fort 
Donelson on the Cumberland. A week later (the flotilla having 
made its way from the Tennessee into the Cumberland) Grant, 
aided by Foote "s gunboats, made an attack upon Fort Donelson, 
and forced General Buckner to surrender the fort and its 
garrison of some fifteen thousand men. To the Confederates' 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



415 




%.i j«isiw S3» Fas', '^r i, FFHENRYa* 




,''*^,- 



inquiry as to terms of surrender, Grant wrote his famous 
reply: ''No terms, except unconditional surrender; I propose 
to move immediately upon your works." Large quantities 
of guns and military stores fell into the hands of the Federals. 

The capture of Fort Donelson was one of the turning points 
of the war. It was the first great Union victory, and the North 
was jubilant. The Confeder- 
ates had been obliged to 
abandon Bowling Green, Co- 
lumbus, and Nashville. Thus 
Kentucky and most of Ten- 
nessee had been yielded to 
the Federals, Chattanooga, 
the key to east Tennessee, 
was open to invasion. The 
victory gave the Unionists an 
advance of one hundred 
miles into the Confederate 
lines and ' ' Unconditional 
Surrender" Grant was the 
hero of the hour. 

Grant had advanced to 
Nashville without waiting 
for orders, or giving any re- 
port of his proceedings to 
Halleck, who had chief com- 
mand of the western army. 
The latter complained to 
McClellan, the commander-in-chief, and McClellan author- 
ized Halleck to arrest Grant and put C. F. Smith in command. 
Halleck, however, in consideration of the immense popularity 
which "Unconditional Surrender" Grant had won for himself, 
only ordered him back to Fort Henry and placed Smith in 
charge of the expedition up the Tennessee. At length Halleck, 
after he had received Grant's reports, telegraphed him his 



.v*...,^^ - ,^i^ F TTSBURC LAMDINC JjJ- ,'« 

^ %'':^ST '^^**^° LYSPBNCS^ »*^l^% ^ 










416 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

satisfaction, and Grant, who had been keenly offended, was 
pacified. Grant, however, had such an aversion for giving 
detailed reports of his movements, that the department at 
Washington was obliged to send to his headquarters a special 
agent, who by daily telegraph reports kept the government 
informed. General Grant's initials were U. S. (Ulysses Simp- 
son) ; after the famous reply mentioned above, people translated 
them into "Unconditional Surrender." 

519. Union Victory at Shiloh. After the capture of Fort 
Donelson, the Confederates, about forty thousand in number, 
under Johnston, Beauregard, and Bragg, made Corinth their 
center for further military action. Grant, with the Army of 
the Tennessee, and Buell, with the Army of the Cumberland, 
occupied Nashville. Their combined forces numbered about 
seventy-five thousand men. Grant proceeded to Pittsburg 
Landing, near Shiloh, in southwestern Tennessee, to which 
place Buell was hastening from Nashville. The two armies 
planned to advance upon the Confederates at Corinth. 
Johnston, hoping to crush Grant before Buell could arrive, 
made a hasty march from Corinth and met the Union army 
at Shiloh. On the first day the Union forces were defeated 
and driven steadily back toward the river. On the night 
following, however, Buell arrived, and the Unionists won a 
great victory. The Confederates were forced from the field 
with the loss of their noble commander, Albert Sydney 
Johnston, and twenty-five thousand men. This was one of the 
bloodiest battles of the war. General Beauregard now assumed 
command of the Confederate forces, which had retreated to 
Corinth. This place they were, however, soon compelled to 
evacuate (May). 

520. Opening of the Mississippi. After aiding in the capture 
of Donelson, Foote with his gunboats attacked Island No. 10 
in the Mississippi River. He captured the place on the same 
day that Grant and Buell won the famous battle of Shiloh. 
Fort Pillow Avas next taken (June) and the Union gunboats 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 417 

then advanced down the Mississippi to Memphis. Admiral 
Davis defeated the Confederate fleet guarding that city and 
the P^ederal forces occupied Memphis (June). The Mississippi 
River was now opened to Vicksburg and as the Federal troops 
were in control of western Kentucky and Tennessee their line 
of defense extended from Memphis to Chattanooga. 

Meanwhile, General S. R. Curtis, supported by General Sigel, 
had met the Confederates, commanded by General Van Dorn, 
at Pea Ridge (March). A hard battle was fought, in which 
the Confederates were defeated and forced south of the 
Arkansas River. After this no important battle occurred west 
of the Mississippi. 

521. The Battles of Perryville and Murfreesboro. Bragg, who 
succeeded Beauregard as Confederate commander in the West, 
determined to recover Tennessee and Kentucky. He moved 
eastward toward Chattanooga and then started northward 
directly toward Louisville. Buell reached Louisville before 
the Confederates, and thus saved the city. An indecisive battle 
was fought at Perryville (October) and the Confederates, 
carrying with them long trains of captured supplies, withdrew 
to Chattanooga, where they left their booty. On their way to 
Nashville, they next fortified Murfreesboro or Stone River, 
where William Rosecrans, who had superseded Buell, attacked 
and defeated Bragg in one of the hardest fought battles of 
the war. The battle, however, was not decisive, for, though 
the Confederates were obliged to withdraw, the Federals were 
too much crippled to pursue. The Union loss was about 
thirteen thousand and the Confederate about ten thousand. 
The battle left the control of central Tennessee in the hands 
of the Unionists. 

522. Federal Victory at luka and Corinth. Grant and Sher- 
man were with the army of the Tennessee at Corinth. While 
a part of Grant's army, under Buell, was busily employed in 
driving Bragg from the state, the Confederate Generals Price 
and Van Dorn took advantage of the opportunity and endeav- 



418 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ored to regain Corinth. Roseerans, however, defeated Price 
at luka (September) and repulsed (October) a fierce attack 
on Corinth made by the combined forces of Van Dorn and 
Price. 

General Grant, shortly before the close of the second year 
of the war, made an attempt to take Vicksburg (December). 
He proceeded from Jackson, Mississippi, while Sherman, with 
his troops, and Porter, with a fleet of gunboats were to descend 
the river from Memphis. The Confederates commanded by 
Van Dorn succeeded in getting in Grant's rear and cutting off 
supplies. Sherman and Porter too were repulsed. 

523. Results of the Campaign in the West. The results of 
the campaign in the West were highly favorable to the North. 
Tlie Union forces had kept possession of Missouri and secured 
control of Tennessee and the Mississippi River with the excep- 
tion of the stretch between Port Hudson and Vicksburg (New 
Orleans having been captured in April). The Confederates 
still firmly held Chattanooga through which the railroads 
passed from Virginia to the southwestern states. 

NAVAL OPERATIOXS ALOXG THE COAST 

524. Battles Between the Ironclads. While the army in the 
West was busy carrying out its work in the plan of the war, the 
Federal blockade of the southern ports was suddenly endan- 
gered. The Merrimac, a Confederate ironclad gunboat, under 
the command of Commodore Franklin Buchanan, entered 
(April) Hampton Roads. Here it met a Union fleet, which, 
with the land batteries, rained shot and shell against the iron- 
clad monster but with no effect. The strange craft thrust its 
l^row into the Cumberland and sank it. It next drove the other 
vessels ashore and set several of them, on fire. Had not dark- 
ness come on, it would have destroyed the whole fleet. Satis- 
fied w4tli the results of the day, however, it withdrew to Nor- 
folk, intending to continue its work of destruction the next 
day. As it steamed proudly out from Norfolk the following 



ABRAHAM Lincoln's administration 



411) 



morning (March 9), the Confederate ironclad was, to its in- 
tense surprise, confronted by the Union ironclad Monitor, 
in command of Lieutenant John Worden, By one of the strang- 
est and most dramatic coincidents in our history, this new 
Union ironclad had arrived during the night from New York. 
At once the battle began and continued for four hours with the 
utmost desperation. The little Monitor darted at the great 
Confederate warrior and, close against each other, the two 




Tin: MOXTTOK AND THE MERRIMAC 



craft exchanged their heaviest shots. The Merrimac, trying 
to run down the Monitor, could only grate over its iron deck, 
while the Monitor glided out unharmed. Unable to conquer 
its little antagonist, the Merrimac, partially disabled, steamed 
back to Norfolk for repairs. 

On the victory of this, the first battle ever fought between 
ironclad ships, hinged tlie fate of the war. 

Had the Merrimac succeeded : 
(a) the blockade would soon have been destroyed, the cotton 



420 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

markets opened, and perhaps European recognition of 

the Confederacy secured. In short, secession might have 

triumphed ; 
(&) the Peninsular Campaign, which we shall presently study, 

would have been prevented. 
The Monitor, scarcely one-fourth as large as the Merrimac, was 
a new Union ironclad built by John Ericsson in the Brooklyn 
navy yard. It was a hull with a deck a few inches above water, 
in the center of which was a curious revolving iron turret 
containing two guns. Because of its similarity to a huge cheese 
box on a raft, it was nicknamed "Yankee cheese box on a 
plank." Insignificant as the Monitor appeared, it was, never- 
theless, at that moment the most powerful warship in the world, 
and marked a wonderful change in the world's warfare. 
Strangely enough, neither vessel did much further service. The 
Merrimac was blown up by the Confederates when they aban- 
doned Norfolk during McClellan's Peninsular Campaign in May 
of this year, and the Monitor sank in a storm at sea near Cape 
Hatteras (1863). 

525. Capture of New Orleans. The Mississippi had been 
opened from the north as far south as Vicksburg; but with 
New Orleans in possession of the Confederates, the Union 
covild not possibly secure either a complete blockade, or the 
control of the rest of the river. Hence an expedition of naval 
and land forces (about fifteen thousand), commanded by Com- 
modore David Farragut and General Benjamin Butler, sailed 
from Hampton Roads and landed on Ship Island, in the mouth 
of the Mississippi. The approach to New Orleans from the 
south was guarded by the two strongly fortified forts, Jack- 
son and St. Philip, located some distance below the city. Below 
the forts the river was obstructed by a raft of vessels and logs, 
connected by chains, while above them was a fleet of thirteen 
Confederate gunl)oats and an ironclad floating battery. At 
a favorable opportunity, Farragut, amid the bombardment of 
the forts, broke the chains which connected the raft, and with 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 421 

his flotilla of forty vessels made a perilous run past the forts, 
destroyed the Confederate gunboats, and forced New Or- 
leans to surrender (April). General Butler took command 
of the city as military governor. By the capture of New 
Orleans the blockade was rendered more thorough, and the 
Mississippi River, except for the stretch from Port Hudson to 
Vicksburg, was left in the control of the Union forces. 

WAR IN THE EAST — PENINSULAR CAMPAIGN 

526. Position of the Armies — The Project of Capturing- Rich- 
mond. Returning to the war in the East, we find that after 
the Federal defeat at Bull Run, McClellan, who had superseded 
McDowell, spent the winter (1861-1862) organizing and disci- 
plining his forces — the Army of the Potomac — which num- 
bered about two hundred thousand. The Confederate army in 
the East was commanded by Joseph E. Johnston, and num- 
bered less than one hundred thousand. 

The capture of Richmond was the object of the North. The 
city could be approached in three ways : by direct land route, 
through the Shenandoah Valley, and by Chesapeake Bay and 
the peninsula between the James and York rivers. The people 
of the North, as well as the authorities at "Washington, favored 
the direct land route to Richmond. McClellan, however, pre- 
ferred the old Revolutionary fighting field, and Lincoln reluc- 
tantly yielded to him. McClellan 's plan necessitated a division 
of the Union forces in the East into four separate armies under 
independent commanders : one under McClellan in the penin- 
sula, another under McDowell for the protection of Washington, 
a third under Banks in the Shenandoah Valley, and a fourth 
under Fremont in the passes leading to West Virginia. 

527. McClellan Fights His Way to the Vicinity of Richmond. 
McClellan transported (March) his army of ninety thousand 
by water to Fortress Monroe, intending to move upon Rich- 
mond by the peninsula between the York and James rivers. 



422 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Confederate commander, Joseph E. Johnston, however, had 
learned of McClellan's plan, and when the Union forces landed 
on the peninsula, they found a line of entrenchments which 
barred their way from Yorktown to Richmond. 

McClellan besieged Yorktown, but the Confederates, after 
delaying him for a month, slipped away unharmed. Norfolk 
was evacuated about the same time, after the navy yard had 
l)een bui'iied and the famous Merrimac blown up. McClellan 
followed up the retreating Confederates and defeated them 
at Williamsburg. He next advanced to the Chickahominy 
Eiver. A part of his army crossed this river to Fair Oaks, 
or Seven Pines, and was furiously attacked by the Confeder- 
ates under Johnston. A desperate battle continued for two 
days'. Though the Union troops suffered the greater loss of 
life, they held their ground. The Confederates, with Johnston 
wounded, retired. Eobert E. Lee now succeeded Johnston in 
command of the southern troops. 

528. Jackson's and Stuart's Raids. Instead of attacking 
Richmond at once, McClellan waited for McDowell to re-en- 
force him at White House Landing. But Stonewall Jackson 
made a dashing raid through the Shenandoah Valley, the 
"backdoor to Washington," out-generaled and defeated Banks 
and Fremont, and in three weeks had not only cleared the val- 
ley of Federal troops, but had also carried his forces back 
by rail in time to assist Lee against McClellan. Further- 
more, General Stuart, with his dashing cavalry, had encircled 
McClellan's army, torn up railroads, and burned immense 
quantities of supplies. Consequently, Jackson's raid, which 
took the appearance of an attack on Washington, kept McDow- 
ell there to protect the seat of government, while Stuart's 
action had checked tlie progress of the Federal troops. 

529. The Seven Days' Battles. McClellan determined to 
change his base of operations from the York to the James 
River, but was attacked on the way by the Confederates in a 
series of destructive battles which lasted seven days (June 25 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN S ADMINISTRATION 



423 



till July 1). (The Seven Days' Battles were fought at Mechan- 
ic'sville, Gaines Mill, Savage Station, Glendale, or Frazier's 
Farm and Malvern Hill.) The last of these engagements resulted 
in Lee's repulse. McClellan withdrew his army to Harrison's 
Landing, on the James River, farther from Richmond than 
before. Thus the result of the Peninsular Campaign was a 
Union failure — Richmond was not taken, . 

The campaign was a triumph for the Confederate cause. 
The Union retreat had been conducted with skill, the troops 
had distinguished themselves by bravery and steadiness, and 
the battle at Malvern Hill M^as a decided victory; yet Rich- 
mond had not been 
taken; some ten 
thousand Union sol- 
diers had been made 
prisoners, immense 
Union stores had 
been taken or de- 
stroyed, and the 
Union army was, as 
it were, cooped up 
on the James River. 

The North was now as much discouraged as it had been after 
tlK' battle of Bull Run. 

530. Results of the Peninsular Campaign — Lincoln's Stand. 
Although the people throughout the North were greatly dis- 
heartened by the failure of the Peninsular Campaign, Lincoln 
did not allow his spirits to sink. He called for three hundred 
thousand more volunteers, and four hundred and twenty-one 
thousand promptly responded. General Halleck was appointed 
commander-in-chief of the Union armies, while McClellan re- 
mained in command of the Army of the Potomac. His plan 
for the capture of Richmond was given up and the forces of 
McDowell, Banks, and Fremont were united under the name of 
the Army of Virginia, with General Pope as commander. 




424 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Congress during this period passed a number of measures, 
the most important of whioh were the construction of a rail- 
road to the Pacific Ocean, the establishment of a Department 
of Agriculture, and the "Morrill tariff," ^5plich gave to each 
state as many times thirty thousand acres of land as it had 
members in Congress, for the support of agricultural colleges 
and the teaching of mechanical arts. This "Morrill tariff" was 
of great educational importance, since it was the origin of most 
of the agricultural colleges and many of the state universities 
of the United States. 

LEES INVASION OF THE NORTH 

531. Federal Defeats at Cedar Mountain, Bull Run, and Har- 
per's Ferry — Victory at Antietam. McClellan was ordered 
to re-transport his army by way of Fortress Monroe to the 
Potomac. No sooner had he withdrawn from Richmond than 
Lee and Jackson marched (August) toward Washington and 
utterly defeated the Union forces under Generals Banks and 
Pope at Cedar Mountain, and in a second battle at Bull Run, 
before McClellan could arrive and give any assistance. The 
scattered Union forces fell back to Washington, where McClel- 
lan assumed command of both armies and inspired them with 
renewed courage. 

Lee now crossed the Potomac into Maryland with the hope of 
receiving recruits from this state, and captured Harper's Ferry 
about the same time that Bragg was making his dash for Louis- 
ville in the West. McClellan, meanwhile, following Lee along 
the north bank of the Potomac, met him at Antietam in the 
most*aesperate and bloody one-day battle of the war. Though 
the Union troops held the field and Lee was obliged to retreat 
across the Potomac into Virginia, the victory was not decisive, 
since McClellan lost some thirteen thousand men and Lee about 
ten thousand. Lee's first invasion of the North was thus a 
failure. McClellan, however, was blamed by the country for 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 425 

not pursuing him across the Potomac and breaking up his 
army. Consequently, Lincoln transferred the command of the 
Army of tlie Potomac to General Burnside. 

532. Federal Defeat at Fredericksburg. Burnside proved as 
rash as McClellan had been over-cautious. He crossed the 
Rappahannock (December) and, throwing his army against 
Lee, who occupied a strongly fortified position at Fredericks- 
burg, was defeated with an immense loss. The Union array 
might have been annihilated if Lee had followed up his victory. 
As it was, Burnside managed to transport his shattered forces 
to the northern banks of the river. He was now superseded in 
command by General Hooker, known as "Fighting Joe." 

After the battle of Fredericksburg, both armies went into 
winter quarters on opposite sides of the Rappahannock, where 
the boys in blue and the boys in gray soon became friends and 
interchanged little favors across the river. The boys in blue 
kept up their spirits by singing the inspiring notes of the "Star 
Spangled Banner," while the boys in gray sang, in turn, as 
devotedly their song of "Dixie Land." The singing sometimes 
continued until both armies joined in the strains of "Home 
Sweet Home," and then retired for the night to dream of loved 
ones at home. 

533. Hostile Attitude of Great Britain. Lincoln was espe- 
cially depressed because of the result of the war in the East. 
He looked forward to a victory which would change the atti- 
tude of Great Britain. The unfriendly disposition to the Union 
Government evinced by this nation at the beginning of the war 
was increased by the "Trent Affair," and now, after McClel- 
lan 's reverses, it became still more apparent. Shipyards in 
Great Britain built and equipped a number of swift sailing 
steamships for Confederate service. With these vessels, most 
noted among which were the Alahama, Florida, and Oeorgia, the 
Confederate authorities succeeded in inflicting a great deal of 
damage on the Union shipping; in fact, they very nearly 
cleared the ocean of American commerce. 



426 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATJ:S 

534. Emancipation. During the war, the slaves who came 
within the Union lines became a problem. At the suggestion 
of General Butler, Congress passed a confiscation act by which 
any property used in aid of the Rebellion could be confiscated, 
and slaves employed by their masters in any service hostile to. 
the United States could be set free. 

According to the President and Congress, the object of the 
war was to save the Union. Generals Fremont, in Missouri, 
and Hunter, in the southeast, declared the slaves free ; but 
Lincoln at once disavowed these measures and declared that 
he could not permit any general to free the slaves, since the 
responsibility of the act would fall upon the President. He 
knew that such action would cause some of the men in the 
border states to withdraw their support from the Union. He 
had, nevertheless, been thinking seriously of emancipation; 
but Seward advised him to wait for a Union victory. Antietam 
served the purpose, and on the 22d of September Lincoln issued 
a proclamation which gave formal notice that unless the Con- 
federates yielded allegiance to the Union within one hundred 
days thereafter, he should declare the slaves within their limits 
free. It is needless to say that the seceded states did not 
heed this proclamation. Accordingly, on the first of January, 
1863, Lincoln issued a formal proclamation by which the slaves 
of the Confederate states were freed. It at once became a 
world-known fact that victory for the Federal arms now meant 
two things — the union of the states and the liberty of the 
slaves. 

Lincoln thought that the Emancipation Proclamation w^ould 
weaken the South ; would prevent foreign recognition of its 
constitution, and would bring about the final overthrow of 
slavery. His action was, of course, without constitutional war- 
rant. It was entirely a war measure. Missouri (1863) and 
Maryland (1864) freed their own slaves, but the abolition of 
slavery throughout the country could be accomplished only by 
an amendment to the Constitution. The emancipation of the 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINLSTKATION 427 

slaves won for the North llie sympathy of the English people 
in general, and Great Britain, on the point of acknowledging 
the Confederacy as an independent power, now abandoned 
the idea. 

Congress, in spite of tlie Dred Scott Decision, abolished 
(1862) slavery in the District of Colnmbia. Compensation 
amonnting to nearly one million dollars was paid to the owners 
of the slaves. A short time afterwards other acts were passed 
prohibiting slavery in the territories of the United States and 
freeing all slaves who escaped into the lines of the Union 
armies. 

535. Colored Troops — Southern Prisons. Before the close 
of the war the Federal troops enlisted in their armies about 
eighteen thousand negroes. The Confederates bitterly resented 
the employment of their former slaves and refused to recognize 
the negro soldiers or their officers; this led to mutual misun- 
derstanding and ended in stopping all exchange of prisoners. 
As a result, it became necessary to establish great prison pens 
for c;)ptivcs of war on both sides, in which thousands of soldiers 
languished and suffered from disease and famine. 

Some of the noted southern prisons were Libby prison in 
Kichmond, Virginia, and Andersonville prison in Georgia. In 
the famous Libby prison many thousand Federal soldiers were 
confined. The loss of life from disease and want of food was 
exceedingly great. In the Andersonville prison the captives 
were confined within a tract of some twenty acres without 
•shelter from the sun and rain, and in the most filthy and 
unsanitary conditions. Over twelve thousand eight hundred, 
or twenty-six per cent of the total number confined, died. The 
prison superintendent, Wirz, after being court-martialed at 
the close of the war, was hanged for causing the death of the 
prisoners by his neglect. In defense of the South, it mtist, 
however, be said that the southern army and people were in 
great distress, in Avhich their prisoners of war necessarily 
shared. 



428 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



536. Results of 1862. The two contending armies had about 
the same relative strength at the end of the year as they had 
at the beginning; the losses in battles were nearly equal. The 
fact that nothing had been gained in the East was practically 
a defeat to the Union, but considering the achievements in the 
West, the results of the campaigns of 1862 were decidedly in 
favor of the North. 

IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1862 



Name of 


Place Where 


Date 


Commanding 
General of 


Commanding 
General of Con- 


Battle 


Fought 




Union Army 


federate Army 


Mill Springs. 


Mill Springs, Ky. 


Jan. 19 


Brig.-Gen. G. 
Thomas 


H. 


Maj.-Gen. G. B. 
Crittenden 


Fort Donelson 


Ft. Donelson, 


Feb. 16 


Brig.-Gen. U. 


S. 


Brig.-Gens. G. J. 




Tenn. 




Grant 




Pillow, J. B. 
Floyd and S. 
B. Buckner 












Pea Ridge. . . 


Pea Ridge, Ark. . 


March 7-8 .. . 


Brig.-Gen. S. 
Curtis 


R. 


Maj.-General E. 
VanDorn 


Merrimac and 


Hampton Roads, 


March 9 


Lieutenant J. 


L. 


Flag-Officer F. 


Monitor 


Va. 




Worden 




Buchanan 


Shiloh 


Pittsburg Land- 


April 6-7 


Brig.-(Jen. U. 


S. 


Gen. A. S. John- 




ing, Tenn. 




Grant 




ston 


Island No. 10. 


Island No. 10, 


April 7 


Maj. -General 


J. 


Maj. -Gens. J. P. 




Tenn. 




Pope 




McCown and 
W. W. Mackall 


New Orleans. 


New Orleans, La. 


April 25 


Flag-officer 
G. Farragut 


D. 


Com. J. K. Mitch- 
ell 








Mai.-Gen. B. 


F. 


Maj.-General M. 








Butler 




Lovell 


Fair Oaks 


Fair Oaks, Va. 


May .31-June 


Mai. -General 


Mc- 


Gen. J. E. John- 






1 


Clellan 




ston 


Seven Days' 


Mi'dianicsvillc 


June 26-July 


Ma1.-<;eneral Mc- 


(Jen. R. E. Lee 


Battle 


SavM.uc's Statiim 


1 


Clellan 






(Va.) 


WhitcOak Swamp 
Frazior's Farm 
Malvern Hill 










Baton Rouge . 


Baton Rouge, La. 


Aug. 5 


Brig. -General 
Williams 


T. 


Maj.-Gen. J. C. 
Breckinridge 


Bull Run (Soc 


Bull Run. Va. 


Aug. 29-:^0. . . 


Ma.i.-(ieneral 


J. 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


ond) 






Pope 






Antietam. . . . 


Antietam Creek, 


Sept. 17 


Maj. -General Mc- 


Gen. R. E. Lee 




Md. 




Clellan 






luka 


luka. Miss. 


Sept. 19 


Maj. -Gen. W. 
Rosecrans 


S. 


Maj.-General S. 
Price 


Corinth 


Corinth, Miss. 


Oct. 4 


Maj. -Gen. W. 
Rosecrans 


s. 


Maj.-General E. 
VanDorn 


Perry ville . . . 


Perryville. Ky. 


Oct. 8 


Maj.-Gen. D. 
Buell 


C. 


Gen. B. Bragg 


Fredericks- 


Fredericksburg, 


Dec. 13 


Maj.-Gen. A. 


E. 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


burg 


Va. 




Burnside 






First Vicks- 


ChickasawBayou, 


Dec. 28 


Maj.-Gen. W. 


T. 


Lieut. -Gen. J. C. 


burg 


Miss. 




Sherman 




Pemberton 


Murfreesboro. 


Stone's River, 


Dec. .Sl-Jan. 


Maj.-Gen. W. 


S. 


Gen. B. Bragg 




Tenn. 


2. 1868 


Rosecrans 







ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 429 

THIRD YEAR OF THE WAR— 186.] 
WAR IN THE EAST— LEE'S SECOND INVASION OF THE NORTH 

537. Plan — Position of the Annies — Federal Defeat at Chan- 
cellorsville. The Federal plan of war for 1863 Avas the same 
as that of 1862. Hooker, who superseded General Burnside 
in the command of the Army of the Potomac (December, 
1862), spent some months in reorganizing and recruiting his 
forces. By May he had a fine army of some one liundred and 
twenty-five thousand men encamped on the Rappahannock. 
The Confederates, under Lee, were still in their quarters on 
the southern bank of the river. 

General Hooker at length led the Army of the Potomac out 
of camp and placed it nearly opposite the line of Lee's com- 
munication with the South. The latter, seeing Hooker's inten- 
tion, attacked and defeated the Federal forces at Chancel- 
lorsville and forced them back to the northern bank of the 
Rappahannock. In this battle the South lost one of her ablest 
leaders. Stonewall Jackson, while riding back to camp in the 
evening, was mortally wounded by an accidental shot from one 
of his own men. Jackson ranks among the world's greatest 
military commanders. 

538. The Great Battle of Gettysburg, the Turning Point of 
the War. Encouraged by his success, Lee, with an army of 
seventy thousand men, now set out to invade the North for a 
second time. He passed around Hooker's army, which was 
falling back to protect Washington, and proceeded through 
Maryland, into Pennsylvania. The North was alarmed. The 
Army of the Potomac, about one hundred thousand strong, led 
by General George E. Meade, who had superseded Hooker, 
pursued Lee and endeavored to head him off, if possible, from 
Harrisburg and Philadelphia. The two mighty armies encoun- 
tered each other on the famous field of Gettysburg, Pennsyl- 
vania, and after a battle of three days (July 1 to 3), the Con- 
federate troops were defeated. They made a very skillful 



430 



\ 

A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



retreat and were slowly followed by the tired Union troops 
across Maryland into Virginia, where the two armies con- 




GETTYSBURG AND VICINITY 



fronted each other on the Rapidan (a branch of the Rappa- 
hannock). Here they went into winter quarters. 

Gettysburg, the most famous battle of the war, was the only 



ABRAHAM LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION 431 

one fought on northern soil. It put an end to Confederate 
invasion and may be regarded as the turning point of the war. 
With it, the cause of the South began to decline, not only in 
the East, but also in the West — for, only a day after Lee had 
been defeated by Meade at Gettysburg, Peinberton surrendered 
Vicksburg to Grant. 

539. Lincoln's Gettysburg Address. The battlefield of Get- 
tysburg "vvas made a national cemetery. It was dedicated on 
November 19, 1863, on which occasion President Lincoln deliv- 
ered his famous Gettysburg address : 

"Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth 
on tliis continent a new nation, conceived in Liberty and dedi- 
cated to the proposition that all men are created equal. 

Now we are engaged in a great civil war; testing whether that 
nation, or any nation so conceived and so dedicated, can long 
endure. We are met on a great battlefield of that war. We 
have come to dedicate a portion of that field, as a final resting- 
place for those who here gave their lives that that nation might 
live. It is altogether fitting and proper that we should do this. 

But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate — we cannot conse- 
crate — we cannot hallow— this ground. The brave men, living 
and dead, who struggled here have consecrated it far above our 
poor power to add or detract. The world will little note, nor 
long remember what we say here, but it can never forget what 
they did here. It is for us, the living, rather, to be dedicated here 
to the unfinished work which they who fought here have thus far 
so nobly advanced. It is rather for us to be here dedicated to 
the great task remaining before us — that from these honored 
dead we take increased devotion to that cause for which they 
gave the last full measure of devotion — that we here highly 
resolve that these dead shall not have died in vain — that this 
nation, under God, shall have a new birth of freedom — and that 
government of the people, by the people, for the people, shall 
not perish from the earth." 



CHAPTER XXXI 

FKOM THE BATTLE OF GETTYSBUEG TO LEE 'S SUKEENDER AT 
APPOMATTOX— 1863-1865 

THE WAR IN THE WEST 

540. Situation. It was evident that during the year 1863 
the war in the West must center about Vicksburg on the Mis- 
sissippi, and Chattanooga in eastern Tennessee, for 

(a) Vicksburg, a strongly fortified Confederate city, deprived 
the Federals of the use of the rivers ; furnished the 
Confederates with an easy passage for troops and sup- 
plies, and controlled the only remaining railroad extend- 
ing through the Confederacy to the far West ; 
(6) Chattanooga was so situated as to control eastern Tennes- 
see and the natural passage of Virginia to the Southwest. 
Grant was placed in charge of the Vicksburg territory, and 
Rosecrans in charge of that about Chattanooga. The Confed- 
erate forces in the West were commanded by General Joseph 
E. Johnston, who had recovered from the wound received at 
Fair Oaks, while General Pemberton was placed second in 
command. Owing to a difference existing between the two 
generals, their forces were divided; Pemberton was stationed 
at Vicksburg while Johnston had his headquarters at Jackson, 
ready to intercept Grant's approach on Vicksburg. 

541. The Federals Capture Vicksburg. While events in the 
East had been tending toward the defeat of Lee at Gettysburg, 
Grant had tried plan after plan for attacking Vicksburg, but 
without success. Finally Admiral Porter with his gunboats 
ran the supplies down the river past the batteries in a terrific 
fire. Grant with his army marched from Holly Springs to 
Memphis, and having crossed the river, proceeded down the 

432 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 



433 




western bank to Grand Gulf. After joining his forces with 
Sherman's, he marched westward along the railroad from Jack- 
son, and drove the Confederates into Vicksburg. After a long 
siege, Pemberton surrendered (July 4). Soon after, Port Hud- 
son and the remaining Confederate posts on the river yielded to 
General Banks. The Mississippi, from the source to the mouth, 
was now in control of the Federal gov- 
ernment, or, as Lincoln expressed it, 
"The Father of Waters flowed unvexed 
to the sea." 

542. The Confederates Abandon 
Chattanoog-a — They Defeat the Fed- 
erals at Chickamauga. After the battle 
of Murfreesboro, Bragg retreated be- 
fore Rosecrans into the important 
stronghold of Chattanooga, and no 
further decisive military operations 
took place in Tennessee and Georgia 
for about six months. Both forces had 
been greatly weakened by the terrible 
slaughter during the battles of 1862, 
while all available troops had been 
sent to re-enforce the armies, either in 
Virginia or the Mississippi Valley. Fi- 
nally, Rosecrans, who had been much 
criticized for his inactivity, moved 
southward around Bragg 's army, 
whereupon the Confederate general abandoned Chattanooga 
and retreated into Georgia toward Atlanta. 

Rosecrans pursued Bragg, who, however, having received 
re-enforcements from Lee, unexpectedly faced aliout and vig- 
orously attacked (September) the Federals at Chickamauga 
in one of the most desperate battles of the war. As a result 
of the battle, the Federal troops fell back to Chattanooga, 
where they were besieged by General Bragg. About seventeen 



VICKSBURG CAMPAIGN 



434 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



thousand lives were lost on each side. General Thomas now- 
superseded Rosecrans. During this battle, Thomas greatly dis- 
tinguished himself. Holding his ground against the persistent 



tBROWNS FERRY,. j.^''%35C'''^'-'^*^a^^ ^ 





^1^^' 




'V- 



gCHATTANOOGA .,„"^;m'^**-. 



10 i 



*^X€^ 






^^s|fe 



i^ 




W^ 




KAMA U (J A 



CHICKAMAUGA AND LOOKOUT MOUNTAIN 



assaults of the enemy, he gave the Union army time to retreat 
in fair condition to Chattanooga. His skill and gallantry that 
day won for him the title, "The Rock of Chickamauga." 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 435 

543. Confederate Defeats at Chattanooga and Knoxville. 

Grant, who had been put at the head of all the armies west of 
the Alleghauies, assumed command at Chattanooga and sum- 
moned troops from the East and the West. Hooker came from 
the Army of the Potomac, Sherman from the Army of the 
Tennessee, while Thomas led the Army of the Cumberland. 

Sherman and Thomas attacked and captured Missionary 
Ridge, while General Hooker stormed Lookout Mountain in 
the "battle above the clouds." Communications were opened 
with Chattanooga and Bragg 's forces retreated southward 
(November) to Dalton, Georgia, where Bragg turned over his 
command to General Johnston. 

While Rosecrans was moving on to Chattanooga, Burnside, 
who had been superseded by Hooker in command of the Army 
of the Potomac, moved from Cincinnati into Tennessee and 
occupied Knoxville. Bragg, confident of victory over the Fed- 
erals at Chattanooga, sent General Longstreet against Burn- 
side. Sherman, immediately after the capture of Missionary 
Ridge, hastened to relieve Burnside, but on his approach. Long- 
street withdrew through the mountains to Virginia. Both the 
Federal and the Confederate armies now went into winter 
quarters. 

544. Results of the War in the West. The primary object 
of the war in the West had been achieved. The Mississippi 
had been opened by the capture of Vicksburg and Port Hudson, 
and Chattanooga, the Confederate gateway of the West, had 
been taken. Grant's successes at Vicksburg and Chattanooga 
won for him the rank of lieutenant-general and he succeeded 
Halleck as general-in-chief of all the Union armies. 

0PERATT0N8 ON THE COAfiT 

545. Confederate Blockade-Runners — The Federals Re-cap- 
ture Fort Sumter. The Confederate blockade-runners did 
enormous damage to northern commerce during this year. The 
Florida ran the blockade at Mobile and, entering upon its career 



436 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of destruction, captured some twenty vessels. It was finally 
seized in the harbor of Bahia, Brazil. Three of her prizes, how- 
ever, had been fitted out as cruisers and manned from her 
officers and crew. 

During 1863 the Confederates under Magruder captured Gal- 
veston, Texas (January). An attack of Commodore Dupont, 
with a fleet of nine gunboats on Charleston was repulsed by 
the Confederates (April). General Gilmore now took charge 
of the Union troops and destroyed Fort Sumter and some of 
the fortifications nearby. The Federal blockading ships were 
thus enabled to enter the harbor, and the port of Charleston 
was entirely closed. At the close of the year, however, Wil- 
mington and Mobile, with their fortifications, the objective 
points of most blockade-runners, were still in the possession of 
the Confederates. 

546. Indian Massacres. During the course of the Civil "War, 
the Sioux Indians became dissatisfied because of ill-treatment 
at the hands of the whites and government officials. Bands of 
warriors under "Little Crow" and other chiefs, perpetrated 
horrible massacres in Minnesota, Iowa, and Dakota, in which 
hundreds of whites were slain and thousands made homeless. 
After months of pursuit, however. Colonel Sibley finally routed 
them and captured over five hundred prisoners, of whom thirty- 
nine were hanged on one scaffold at Mankato, Minnesota 
(December 26). 

547. Results of 1863. The general results of 1863 were much 
in favor of the North : 

(a) the Union had gained complete control of the Mississippi; 
(&) it held Chattanooga, the Confederate gateway of the West; 

(c) it had repulsed Lee's second invasion of the North at the 

battle of Gettysburg ; 

(d) it had continued the blockade of the Southern ports and 

closed the port of Charleston. 

(e) the South was fast becoming exhausted, while the North 

was in the height of its power. 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 



437 



IMPORTANT BATTLES OF 1863 









Commanding 


Commanding 


Name op 


Place Where 


Date 


General of 




General of Con- 


Battle 


Fought 




Union Army 




federate Army 


Chanccllors- 


Chancellors ville, 


May 2-3 


Major-General 


J. 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


ville 


Va. 




Hooker 






Gettysburg. . . 


Gettysburg, Pa. 


July 1-3 


Maj.-Gen. G. 
Meade 


G. 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Vicksbiirg. . . 


Vicksburg, Miss. 


July 4 


Maj.-Gen. U. 
Grant 


S. 


Lieut.-Gen. J. C. 
Pemberton 


Port Hudson . 


Port Hudson. La. 


July 8 


Maj.-Gen. N. 
Banks 


1>. 


Maior-Gcneral F. 
Gardner 


Chickamauga. 


Chickamauga, Ga 


Sept. 19-20. . . 


Maj.-Gen. W. 
Rosecrans 


s. 


Gen. B. Bragg 


Chattanooga. 


Chattanooga, 
Tonn. 


Nov. 2.3-25 . . . 


Maj.-Gen. U. 
Grant 


s. 


Gen. B. Bragg 


Knoxville .... 


Knoxville, Tcnn. 


Dec. 4 


Mai. -Gen. A. 
Burnside 


E. 


Lieut. -General J. 
Longstreet 



POLITICAL AFFAIRS 



548. The Draft Act. As the war dragged on, there was rapid 
decrease in the number of Union volunteers. Congress, under 
its constitutional power "to raise and support armies," re- 
sorted to a draft act, or Conscription Bill (March 3), to fill up 
the Union ranks. Accordingly, all able-bodied men between the 
ages of twenty and forty-five (later eighteen and forty-five) 
were enrolled by the Federal officers. If the quota assigned by 
Congress for each state was not supplied by volunteers after 
a certain period, the deficiency was made up by drawing 
names from a box as in a lottery. Exemptions from the draft 
might be secured by furnishing a substitute, or by paying five 
hundred dollars (later three hundred dollars). Any person not 
responding to the draft was treated as a deserter. Lincoln 
called for three hundred thousand troops in May, and in Octo- 
ber for three hundred thousand more. The drafting of these 
new levies aroused much ill-feeling in the North, especially 
among the laboring classes and those opposed to the war. In 
many places the officials were resisted. In New York (July) 
a "draft riot," by a great mob. controlled the city for several 
days, burning houses and killing negroes. The Federal troops 



438 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

succeeded in dispersing the mob, but only after more than 
a thousand rioters had been killed. 

In the South, too, a draft act was issued, and here also it met 
with opposition. It included all able-bodied men between the 
ages of eighteen and forty-five (later seventeen and fifty). Con- 
sequently, all the industries of the Confederacy were left in 
the hands of men over fifty and of women and children. The 
draft act resulted in indescribable suffering. In this section 
there were at times five hundred negroes to a single white man, 
and yet through these dusky throngs the women and children 
walked in safety, and the unprotected homes remained unmo- 
lested. Though conscious that victory by the South would make 
their chains enduring, the negroes moved patiently to the fields in 
the morning to feed the armies, and at night gathered anxiously 
at the big house to "hear the news from the master." 

Supported by the Supreme Court and by Congress, President 
Lincoln issued an order (1862 and again in 1863) suspending 
the writ of habeas corpus in cases which concerned treasonal)le 
acts, disloyal speeches, prisoners of war, deserters, those resisting 
drafts, and offenders against military or naval service. Tlic 
many arbitrary arrests that were made after the suspension of 
the writ of habeas corpus caused much indignation throughout 
the count )"y. 

549. Opposition to the War. By this time opposition to the 
war in tlie North was becoming very strong. Though many 
(Republicans and war Democrats) supported Lincoln's admin- 
istration, a great number of the people (peace Democrats) did 
not like emancipation, confiscation, the suspension of the writ 
of habeas corpus, and the suppression of newspapers. They 
saw in the President's procedures a dangerous one-man power. 
Besides, an immense debt was accumulating, taxation was be- 
coming heavy, thousands of lives were being sacrificed, and 
there was, as yet, no sign of the end of the conflict. 

A secret society, known as the "Knights of the Golden 
Circle," was organized for the purpose of opposing the war. 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 439 

Its members, known as "Copperheads" or "Butternuts," gen- 
erally sympathized with the South, They soon became very 
numerous in the states of Ohio and Indiana. 

550. The Vallandigham Case. Clement L. Vallandigham, a 
former congressman from Ohio, and a most conspicuous oppo- 
nent of the draft act, was an extreme sympathizer with the 
Confederacy, and unsparingly denounced the President and 
the government. He was convicted and imprisoned by a mili- 
tary commission ai)pointed by General Burnside. Claiming to 
have been unlawfully convicted, he appealed to the Supreme 
Court, which, however, decided that it had no constitutional 
right to review proceedings ordered by a general officer of the 
United States army in time of war. Lincoln changed Vallan- 
digham 's sentence of imprisoniiu-nt to banishment to the Con- 
federacy. The exile, escaping in a blockade-runner, made his 
way to Canada. While there, he was nominated for the gov- 
ernorship of his state, but was defeated by a large majority. 
The next year he i-cturncd to Ohio, l)ut was not again molested. 

551. Legal Tender and Banking Acts. Cougress passed 
(1862) the Legal Tender Act, which authorized the issue of 
small promissory notes, similar to bank notes; these, from 
their color, were called greenbacks. They were made legal 
tender, that is, any debtor could offer them instead of gold in 
discharge of a debt and the creditor was forced to accept 
them. It was felt that confidence in the government would be 
best sustained, and its bonds, or promises, more readily taken 
if the interest on the national debt could be paid in coin. To 
secure the necessary coin for this purpose, all customhouse 
duties or tariffs had to be paid in gold. This caused nearly all 
coin, even dimes and quarters, to disappear from circulation. 
For a short time postage stamps served as small change, but 
soon Congress issued little notes for the purpose. 

The value of the greenbacks fluctuated according to the 
extent of the people's faith that the government could ever 
redeem them, or again, according to the fortunes of the war — 



440 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

a Federal victory raising their value, a Confederate success 
decreasing it. Thus the greenback dollar, which was equivalent 
to ninety-eight cents in 1862, fell to about seventy-five cents 
in 1863, and by July, 1864, it was worth scarcely more than 
thirty-five cents. Three hundred million dollars in greenbacks 
were issued and put into circulation during the Civil War. 
These greenbacks, or notes, are still in circulation, although 
they have, of course, been many times renewed. 

Congress during this year passed a National Bank Act by 
which a company of five or more persons with a certain amount 
of capital could establish a bank. The banking company was 
obliged to deposit government bonds as security in the United 
States treasury, and was permitted to issue notes to the extent 
of ninety per cent of its bonds. The government thus held the 
bonds as security for the notes in case of the bank's failure. 
This National Bank Act attained three great objects : 
(a) it secured a market for national bonds; 

(h) it provided the country with a uniform and safe currency; 
(c) it established the confidence of the people in the government. 

Salmon P. Chase, secretary of the treasury, was the author 
of the banking and legal tender acts, and subsequently became 
known as the "Father of Greenbacks." 

FOURTH AND LAST YEAR OF TUB WAR— 1804 

552. Position of the Armies — Union Plan. At the beginning 
of 1864, the last year of the Avar, Grant was made commander- 
in-chief of all the Union armies on both sides of the Alleghanies. 
He assumed direct control of the operations in Virginia and 
confided the armies of the "West, centered at Chattanooga, to 
General Sherman. The Confederates had now but two chief 
centers of power — one at Dalton, Georgia, under the direction 
of General Johnston, and another at Richmond, Virginia, under 
General Lee. Early in the spring, Grant and Sherman met to 
arrange a plan for final movements. 

Sherman with an army of one hundred thousand men, was 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 441 

to defeat Johnston and march to the sea, while Grant, with 
one hundred and twenty thousand men, was to move to Virginia 
and attack Lee. Thus cooperating, they were to march forth 
on the same day (May 4) in order to prevent the Confederate 
forces from giving aid to one another. 

CAMPAIGN,^ IN TENNESSEE AND GEORGIA 

553. Federal Capture of Atlanta. In accordance with the 
plans of the two Union generals, Sherman moved from Chat- 
tanooga against Johnston, who was strongly intrenched at 
Dalton, Georgia. After outflanking Johnston at numerous 
places and defeating him in the pitched battles of Dalton, 
Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw Mountain, he at length, after a 
perilous four-month march, reached Atlanta, having sustained 
a loss of over thirty-one thousand men. 

Georgia was the workshop, the storehouse, granary, and 
arsenal of the Confederacy, and Atlanta was the center from 
which all the necessaries were furnished to the southern armies. 
Hence, by capturing it, the Union forces would strike the Con- 
federacy an almost fatal blow. Its capture, however, was not 
an easy task. The Union center of supplies was Nashville, over 
a himdred miles from Chattanooga, and every mile of advance 
by the Federal troops into Georgia took them farther away 
from their base of supplies. To add to the difficulty, the coun- 
try was rough and mountainous ; there was, furthermore, only 
a single line of railway over which supplies for the army could 
be transported, and Sherman was, consequently, compelled to 
leave parts of his army to protect this line against the enemy. 
At this juncture, the Confederate government, disapproving 
of Johnston's policy of constant retreat, appointed Hood to 
supersede him. Hood proved as rash as Johnston had been 
cautious. He made three tremendous attacks upon Sherman 
at Atlanta, only to be defeated and finally compelled to evacu- 
ate the city. Hood now started northwestward toward Nash- 
ville, hoping thus to draw Sherman back to Tennessee. 



442 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Sherman, suspecting Hood's strategy, sent Thomas to hold 
Nashville, and followed Hood just long enough to be sure 
that he was really moving. He then returned to Atlanta, tear- 
ing up railroads and cutting telegraph wires as he went. 

554. Sherman's Majrch. After burning Atlanta Sherman 
- farted out on his three hundred-mile march to the sea. His array 

of sixty thousand men, 
marching in four columns, 
covered a path sixty miles 
in width. Eailroads were 
torn up ; buildings were 
burned ; crops were de- 
stroyed; in fact, the whole 
region was left a barren 
waste to both man and beast. 
By the middle of December, 
Sherman, having reached the 
sea, stormed Port McAllister, 
which guarded Savannah, 
and a week later captured 
the city itself. The effect 
of this march to the sea was 
of great importance to the 
North. The eastern part of 
the already sundered Con- 
federacy was again cut in 
two, and immense supplies 
of provisions were captured. 
Sherman sent the news of the capture of Savannah to the 
President in the following message: "I beg to present you 
as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah, with one hundred 
and fifty heavy guns and plenty of ammunition; also about 
twenty-five thousand bales of cotton." 

555. The Federal Victory at Nashville. Hood, having tried 
in vain to draw Sherman from Georgia, crossed the Tennessee, 




CHATTANOOGA TO ATLANTA 



LEE S SURRENDER AT APPOMATTOX 



443 



NORTK CAR 0^ IN A "'b 
Vverysborh* ,\^ 
Be'ntoiil-ille , 



and after severe fighting at Franklin, pnshed on to Nashville, 
where he shut up General Thomas within the fortifications. 
Thomas, after waiting two weeks, suddenly attacked Hood (De- 
cember). The desperate two days' battle which followed re- 
sulted in the defeat of the entire Confederate army and ended 
the war in the West. 

556. Sherman Marches Northward. General Sherman, after 
his army had rested for about a month, started (February) 
northward toward the Carolinas to join Grant in Virginia. On 
his way thither he passed through South Carolina and cap- 
tured Columbia, its capital. In 

order to strengthen Johnston's army 
in checking Sherman's advance, the 
Confederates were now obliged to 
evacuate Charleston. Thence Sher- 
man proceeded northward, encoun- 
tering the Confederates at Averys- 
boro and Bentonville and compelling 
them to withdraw to Raleigh. He 
now moved on unmolested to Golds- 
boro, where he was joined by General 
Schofield. General Johnston surren- 
dered Raleigh a few days later, and 
the Union forces advanced toward 
Washington to join General Grant in 
Virginia. 

557. Situation of Grant's Forces — His Plan. It will be re- 
membered that all the Union forces were to advance on the 
same day (May 4), and that each was to keep its opponent 
so occupied that one Confederate army could not re-enforce the 
other. Thus it was hoped the war could be ended in the course 
of the summer. We have already followed Sherman on his 
march to the sea. Let us now return to Grant on the Rapi- 
dan. His plan of advance against Lee in Virginia was three- 
fold : he himself would move direetlv toward Riclnnond, attack- 




yUerjiian's Blarcli Xortli 



444 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



ing Lee at every favorable opportunity on the way thither; 
at the same time General Butler was to move against Richmond 
by the James River ; while Franz Sigel was to confront the 
enemy in the Shenandoah Valley. 

558. The Indecisive Battles of the Wilderness and Spottsyl- 
vania. Grant's army of about one hundred and twenty thou- 
sand, when at length ready for the final movement on Rich- 
mond, crossed the river (May) and entered the Wilderness, a 
densely wooded region south of Chancellorsville. Here the 

two armies met in a hotly 
contested, but undecisive, 
two days' battle. 

After the second day's 
fighting. Grant telegraphed 
President Lincoln, "I pro- 
pose to fight it out on this 
line if it takes all summer." 
He meant that he would 
hammer and batter Lee's 
lines until he broke through 
by sheer fighting force and 
weight of numbers. Thisi 
process of fighting was 
costing Grant two or three 
men to Lee's one. 

After a day's rest in thej 
Wilderness, Grant marched toward Richmond and again en- 
countered Lee in another battle of two days' terrible fighting 
at Spottsylvania Courthouse. The battles of the Wilderness 
and Spottsylvania were among the bloodiest of the war. In 
the Wilderness, the timber and undergrowth rendered all 
orderly movement of the troops impossible. The opposing|( 
forces mowed each other down with the most deadly fire. Had 
the battle of Spottsylvania continued another day, it would have 
surpassed that of Gettysburg in loss of life. 




Tlie IVllderness District. 



m^sm£!M&tiv-iij<i'-~ 





WILLIAM T. SHERMAN 
ULYSSES 8. GRANT 



DAVID G. FARRAGUT 
PHILIP H. SHERIDAN 

UNION Commanders 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 445 

559. Federal Defeats at Cold Harbor and Petersburg. 

Grant's purpose was to get between Lee's army and Rich- 
mond, but in his attempts to do so he was each time out- 
generaled by Lee, who always skillfully managed to fall back 
to a new line of defense. These movements brought on the 
battle of Cold Harbor, where the Confederates were strongly 
intrenched. Within twenty minutes the Union army was re- 
pulsed with a loss of over eight thousand. The Confederates 
behind their entrenchments lost only about two thousand. 

Under cover of continual attacks on Lee's lines. Grant skill- 
fully swung his entire army across the James, with the pur- 
pose of a direct attack on Richmond from the south. He was, 
however, repulsed (July) with great loss at the strongly 
fortified city of Petersburg, some twenty miles south of Rich- 
mond, on the Appomattox River. In this engagement, the 
Federal loss was again much greater than that of the Con- 
federates. 

In the assault on Petersburg, the Federals mined the de- 
fenses around the city and exploded about four tons of gun- 
powder. The Confederate guns and men were thrown high 
into the air but, owing to some blunder, the Federal troops 
were not ready to make the assault through the breach, and 
in consequence failed to carry the works. From the pit caused 
by the explosion the engagement received the name "Battle of 
the Crater." 

560. Raids in the Shenandoah — Butler at Bermuda Hundred. 
Lee, in order to divert Grant's attention from Richmond, sent 
General Jubal Early, with about twenty thousand veterans, 
down the Shenandoah Valley to threaten Washington. Early 
made a brilliant dash, drove the Federals under Sigel and 
Hunter into Virginia, defeated General Lew Wallace at Monoc- 
acy, and came within a few miles of the city, even within 
sight of the dome of the capitol. He next sent a detachment 
into Pennsylvania, which succeeded in burning the town of 
Chambersburg. 



446 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Detaching General Philip Sheridan, "Little Phil," com- 
mander of the cavalry of the Potomac, Grant sent him against 
Early. Sheridan defeated the Confederates (September) in a 
long and hard-fought battle at "Winchester and again at Fish- 
er's Hill, and drove them through the gaps of the Blue Ridge. 
But the Shenandoah Valley was too valuable for the Confed- 
erates to lose. Early suddenly returned, routed the Union 
forces at Cedar Creek, and sent them fleeing for their lives 
toward Winchester, some fourteen miles distant. Sheridan, 
who was returning from Washington, had chanced to stop off 
for the night at Winchester; he heard the cannonading, and 
immediately leaped on his horse and dashed toward the scene 
of defeat. He met the fugitives, urged them to halt, reformed 
their lines, and gallantly led them back to battle and to vic- 
tory. In. accordance with Grant's orders, Sheridan desolated 
the beautiful valley, burned houses, barns, mills, and grain, 
and drove away live stock of every kind. It is said that after 
liis raid not even a crow could have found its living in the 
valley. Within sixteen days Sheridan had cleared the Shen- 
andoah Valley of the Confederates ;. had rendered the region a 
barren waste, and was back again with the Army of the Poto- 
mac. (Read "Sheridan's Ride" by Buchanan Read.) 

Butler was to move against Richmond by way of the James 
River. However, the majority of his forces, about thirty-six 
thousand, was forced by the Confederates into a bend of the 
river at Bermuda Hundred, and there, as Grant expressed it, 
"bottled up." 

561, Lincoln Is Re-elected — New States. While the war was 
still in progress, tlie contest for the presidency absorbed the 
attention of the people. Lincoln, who, in 1861, had been elected 
with great enthusiasm by the Republican party, had lost much 
of his popularity. The Democrats openly denounced him and 
advocated peace at any price. They blamed the President for 
freeing the slaves, for suspending the writ of habeas corpus, 
for the draft, for enlisting colored troops, for the Vallandig- 



lee's surrender at appomattox 447 

ham case, for the removal of McClellan, and for not ending 
the war. They nominated George B. McClellan as their can- 
didate. 

Up to a few weeks before the election it was generally be- 
lieved that Lincoln wonld be defeated, bnt the tide suddenly 
turned in his favor when the stirring news of Sherman's cap- 
ture of Atlanta, Farragut's famous exploit at Mobile, and 
Sheridan's complete success in the Shenandoah Valley proved 
that the President's war policy was not a failure. At the elec- 
tion, Lincoln came forth as the triumphant candidate. He re- 
ceived a majority of one hundred and ninety-one electoral votes 
over McClellan, the Democratic nominee. Andrew Johnson was 
elected Vice-president. 

Two new states were admitted during this year of the war 
(1864) : West Virginia as the thirty-fifth state, and Nevada 
as the thirty-sixth. 

OPERATIOXS OV THE COAST 

562. The Kearsarge Captures the Alabama. As has been 
previously told, England assisted the Confederacy by fitting 
out vessels which did great injury to the Union maritime com- 
merce. Among these cruisers the most famous was the Ala- 
bama, commanded by Captain Semmes. It destroyed no less 
than sixty-six United States merchantmen and ten million 
dollars' worth of property. After a long and destructive 
cruise in the waters of the West Indies, Brazil, and the East 
Indies, the Alabama was at last (June) brought to bay off the 
French port, Cherbourg, by the Kearsarge, a United States 
warship, commanded by the brave and skillful Captain Wins- 
low. A fierce one-hour duel ensued, in which the Alabama 
was shattered and sunk. 

563. The Federals Capture Mobile and Fort Fisher. While 
Grant was campaigning against Lee in Virginia, and Sherman 
against Hooker in Georgia, Admiral Farragut planned the 
capture of Mobile. With his strong fleet of fourteen wooden 



448 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



vessels and five monitors, he determined (August) to make a 
desperate attempt to run past the two powerful forts, Gaines 
and Morgan, which guarded the city. After he had lashed 
the Union vessels in pairs for mutual assistance, Farragut tied 
himself to the rigging of his ship, where he could oversee every 
move of the battle. After a desperate conflict of some hours, 
the Confederate iron ram Tennessee was taken, while the other 
vessels were either captured or put to flight, and Mobile was 
at length compelled to surrender. 

Some months after the capture of Mobile, a powerful naval 
fleet under Admiral Porter, accompanied by a land force under 
General Butler, undertook (December) the capture of Fort 
Fisher, which defended the harbor of Wilmington, South Caro- 
lina. When this attack failed, the command of the land forces 
was given to General Terry, and another attempt to take the fort 
was planned. Accordingly, a month later the Union land and 
naval forces made a simultaneous attack and took (January) the 
fort by storm. With this victory, the last Confederate channel 
of intercourse with foreign countries was closed. The capture of 
Fort Fisher is regarded as one of the most brilliant exploits of 
the war. 

IMPORTANT BATTLES OP 1864 









Commanding 


Commanding 


Name of 


Place Where 


Date 


General of 


General of Con- 


Battle 


Fought 




Union Army 


federate Army 


Wilderness. . . 


Wilderness, Va. 


May 5-6 


Lieut.-Gen. U. S, 
Grant 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Resaea 


Resaea, Ga. 


May 14-15. . . 


Mai. -(Jen. W. T. 
Sherman 


Gen. J. E. John- 
ston 


Cold Harbor. . 


Cold Harbor, Va. 


.Tune 3 


Lieut.-Cien. U. S 
(Jrant 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Atlanta 


Atlanta, (!a. 


.luly 22 


Ma.i.-(ien. W. T. 
Sherman 


Gen. .T. E. .John- 
ston 


Petersburg. . . 


Petersburg, Va. 


.July .30 


Lieut. -(ien. U. S. 
Grant 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Mobile Bay. . . 


Mobile, Ala. 


Aug. 5 


Rear-Admiral D. 
G. Farrasut 


Admiral F. Bu- 
chanan 


Winchester. . . 


Winchester, Va. 


Oct. 19 


Mai. -Gen. P. H. 
Sheridan 


Lieut. -(ien. J. A. 
Early 


Cedar Creek . . 


Cedar Creek, \'a. 


Oct. 19 


Mai.-Gen. P. H. 
Sheridan 


Lieut.-Gen. T. A. 
Early 


Nashville. . . . 


Nashville, Tenn. 


Dec. 15 


Mai.-Gen. G. H 
Thomas 


Gen. .J. B. Hood 





ROBERT E. LEE JEFFERSON DAVIS 

joseph e. johnston thomas j. jackson 

Confederate Leaders 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 



449 



CLOSE OF GRA-NT'S OVERLAND CAMPAIGN 

564. The Federals Compel the Confederates to Evacuate 
Richmond. Grant, since his unsuccessful attempt on Peters- 
burg in the "Battle of the Crater" (June, 1864), had closely 
besieged Petersburg and Richmond. Not wishing to wait for 
Sherman's arrival from the South, he made a successful as- 
sault (April 1, 1865) with troops under Sheridan against the 
Confederate forces at Five Forks. The next day Grant made 
a general attack on Petersburg, whereupon Lee evacuated 
both Petersburg and Richmond (April 3), and the Federal 
troops took possession of the Confederate capital. Lee re- 
treated with the purpose of bringing his own and Johnston's 
forces together for a final stand. Grant's forces pursued him 
closely. Lee made the utmost effort 

to escape with his army southward, 
but he was almost surrounded by 
Grant's forces, while Sherman, com- 
ing up from Raleigh, completely 
l)locked his retreat to the South. 
The Confederates had for many days 
lived on parched corn and young 

shoots of trees, and many of them dropped their guns from 
exhaustion. 

565. The Surrender of the Confederate Armies. Thus 
pressed on all sides, Lee, not wishing to cause needless blood- 
shed, surrendered to Grant at Appomattox Courthouse (April 
9, 1865). 

The two great commanders met in the McLean home, one of 
the largest of the five houses in Appomattox, to arrange the 
terms of surrender. By these terms: 
(a) the Confederate soldiers and officers were to be permitted 

to go home on their parole not to take up arms again 

until properly exchanged ; 
(&) all the Confederate officers should be allowed to retain 

their side arms, horses, and baggage ; and the privates 




R G I N IV 

Petetsburgi 
P^e Forks»v 
X.^Fqrt SteS 
I/ast Battle»4. 



450 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



wlio owned horses and mules should he permitted to 

take them home — "they will need them for the spring 

plowing, ' ' saitl Grant ; 
(c) five days' rations should he given to Lee's famished 

soldiers. 
Johnston surrendered to Sherman (April 26), and with the 
exception of a few minor conflicts elsewhere in the South, the 
Civil War, which had so long desolated the country, was at 
an end. 

IMrORTANT BATTLES OF 1S65 









Commanding 


Commanding 


Name of 


Place Where 


Date 


General of 


General of Con- 


Battle 


I'^ought 




Union Army 


federate Army 


Fort Fishei-. . 


Fort Fisher. N.C. 


Jan. 15 


Ma,1.-Gen. A. H. 
Terry 


Gen. B. Bragg 


Mobile 


Mobile, Ala. 


March 17- 


Maj.-Gen. E. R. 


Maj.-Gen. D. li. 






April 12. . . 


Canby 


Maury 


Bentonvlllo. . 


Bentonville, N.C. 


March 19-21 


Maj.-Gen. W. T. 
Sherman 


Gen. .1. E. John- 
ston 


Five Forljs . . . 


Five Forks, Va. 


April 1 


Maj.-Gen. P. H. 
Sheridan 


Maj.-Gen. G. E. 
Pickett 


Appomattox 


Richmond. Va. 


April 9 


Lieut.-Gen. U. S. 


Gen. R. E. Lee 


Campaign 






Grant 





566. The Confederate President and Officers. As soon as 
Richmond was evacuated, the officers of the Confederate gov- 
ernment, hoping to escape to foreign shores, fled in various 
directions toward the coast. Jefferson Davis endeavored to 
escape capture by fleeing through the Carolinas into Georgia, 
but was taken at Irvinsville (May 10, 1865). He was con- 
fined in Fortress Monroe until released on bail (1867). No 
other officer of the Confederate government was either 
brought to trial or prosecuted. Only one Confederate was 
put to death at the close of the war — the keeper of the 
Andersonville prison. 

567. Lincoln Is Assassinated. The news that the war had 
ended was received with an outburst of joy in the North. In 
his second inaugural address, Lincoln had given expression to 
sentiments most suited to soothe and heal the nation 's wounds. 
The following are his closing words: "With malice toward 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 451 

none, with charity for all, with firmness in the right as God 
gives us to see the right, let us strive on to finish the work 
we are in ; to bind up the nation 's wounds ; to care for hiin 
who shall have borne the battle, and for his widow and his 
orphan — to do all which may achieve and cherish a just and 
lasting peace among ourselves and with all nations." But, 
alas, the joy of the nation was only too soon changed into the 
deepest sorrow by the assassination of President Lincoln at 
Ford's Theater in Washington, April 14, 1865 (Good Friday). 
Lincoln was sitting in his private box in the theater, sur- 
rounded by his family and friends, when John Wilkes Booth, an 
actor, forced his way into the box and shot the President through 
the head. He then leaped over the railing upon the stage, and 
shouting, "Sic semper tyrannis" (Thus ever to tyrants — the 
motto of Virginia), rushed from the building. The President 
never regained consciousness and died the next morning. 

No one was less deserving than President Lincoln of the 
reproachful title of "tyrant" ascribed to him by the assassin. 
No other inan in all our political history had come so near to 
the hearts of the common people. If Washington is called the 
"Father of the People," Lincoln may well be termed their 
"Elder Brother." Trained in the hard school of poverty and 
want, and little used to refinements of society, he was gifted 
with great common sense, kindness, sincerity, farsightedness, 
shrewdness, and steadfastness of purpose. He showed the 
highest skill in dealing with his enemies and opponents and 
in interpreting the half -expressed will of the people ; complete 
master of himself, he held to his convictions with an iron will. 
What wonder then that this honest, simple man won the 
admiration of the masses and rose to be, as Stanton asserted, 
one of the "most perfect I'ulers of men the world has ever 
seen." Without his masterly hand on the reins of govern- 
ment in that critical period when the warring sections of a 
disunited country were grappling in the deadly conflict of 
civil war, the Union, many believe, would not have been saved. 



452 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The whole nation mourned over the death of the great 
leader. His body was borne, midst the expressions of the 
deepest grief and affection, from Washington through tlie 
chief cities of the East and westward to Springfield, Illinois, 
where it was laid in its final resting place. 

About the same time Lincoln was shot, another assassin 
attempted to murder Secretary Seward, who was lying ill at 
his home. There had been a plot to murder several of the 
leaders of the government. Booth was hunted down and finally 
shot. Four other conspirators were hanged and three impris- 
oned for life. 

568. Closing Events of the War. Before the Union soldiers 
disbanded, as many of them as possible marched to Washing- 
ton for a general review before the President, Congress, and 
an immense throng of people. During two days the veterans 
under Grant and Sherman marched in one continuous column, 
twenty men deep and about thirty miles long, down Penn- 
sylvania Avenue and then disbanded. 

569. The Grand Army of the Republic. During the winter 
of 1865-66 an association called the Grand Army of the Repub- 
lic (G. A. R.) was formed by the Federal soldiers and sailors 
of the Civil War. The object of this organization was to ren- 
der charity and assistance to the disabled veterans and the 
families of those dead, and to keep alive military traditions 
and foster the spirit of patriotism. Grand Army posts exist 
in nearly every city in the North and West, and hold national 
conventions annually. The membership of the Grand Army 
in 1912 numbered more than one hundred and sixty-three 
thousand, but this number is fast decreasing by deaths. 

570. Result of the War. The Civil War was the greatest 
of its kind in history. Now that it was ended, the question 
arose, was it worth the awful sacrifice of life and property? 
Though it is quite impossible for anyone to answer this ques- 
tion, the war, undoubtedly, swept away many evils and had 
the following far-reaching results: 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 453 

(a) the Union was preserved and the claim to the right of 
secession abandoned; 

{b) slavery was forever abolished by the Thirteenth Amend- 
ment to the Constitution (December, 1865). 

571. Christian and Sanitary Commission. The armies and 
navies were not the only agents distinguished for heroism during 
the long struggle of the Civil War. Humane and charitable men" 
and women organized sanitary and Christian commissions. They 
made it their duty to provide sick and wounded soldiers with 
every possible relief and comfort, and the dead with proper 
burial. This noble work was supported by liberal contributions 
and by the income of "sanitary fairs" held in the principal 
towns and cities. Hundreds of women who had grown up amidst 
ease and luxury now prepared with their own hands bandages 
for the wounded, and moved about on the battlefield, in the 
camp, and in hospitals, nursing the sick and wounded. The 
women of the South, the scene of most of the war, bore the great- 
est privations. They even shared their meager food supplies 
with sick and famished soldiers. 

572. Catholicity and the Civil War. With the end of the 
Civil War a new era dawned for Catholicity. The terrible 
conflict had shaken, as it were, the very foundation of the 
nation; house had been divided against house, and brother 
had been striving against brother. Half the country had been 
laid waste and rendered desolate; on every side were weari- 
ness and exhaustion, and a longing for peace. But the Catho- 
lic Church had shed her brilliant light of charity through 
the gloom of war, and at the end of the struggle still stood 
undiminished in strength and unbroken in unity — the pride 
of her children and the admiration of thousands who, before 
the war, had looked upon her progress with jealous concern. 

Great number of Protestants, who knew little of the Church, 
had been prejudiced against her. However, they had been 
brought into intimate contact with Catholics during the war, 
and had seen enough of the Church and her sublime mission 



454 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to make them forget their bigotry, which now gave way to 
genuine admiration. There was probably not a village 
throughout the land in which there could not be found some 
brave non-Catholic soldier who spoke the praises of some 
Catholic priest or Sister of Charity or noble Catholic fellow 
soldier. 

Catholics were, it is true, divided on political grounds. They 
were all, however, united in faith, and Catholicity took no 
sides, but sent her heroes of charity to both armies. The 
Church sent her priests from the parish and the college, her 
nuns from the orphan asylums and schoolrooms, to the camp, 
the hospital, the prison, and the bloody battlefield. Mean- 
while her places of worship resounded with earnest petitions 
to Heaven for peace and with solemn Requiems for the fallen. 

573. Great Commanders. The Civil War brought to the 
front some able commanders. Of the Union generals, Mc- 
Clellan 's services in organizing the Army of the Potomac were 
invaluable, but his excessive caution and the friction between 
the authorities at Washington and himself led to disappoint- 
ments in his achievements against the Confederates. He was, 
notwithstanding, very popular with the soldiers, by whom he was 
called "Little Mac." Grant, though not remarkable for his 
military tactics, is noted for his indomitable pluck and for the 
fact that the three eventful surrenders — Donelson, Vicksburg, 
and Appomattox — were all due to him. Next may be men- 
tioned Sherman, Sheridan, Philip Kearny, and Farragut. 

On the southern side Lee was 1\y far the ablest general, and 
it is commonly believed that he had no equal in the North. 
He was the son of "Lighthorse Harry" of Revolutionary 
fame. He was greatly loved by his soldiers and by the south- 
ern people, and this devotion so increased after the war that 
he always and everywhere received the most touching demon- 
strations of respect and affection. Stonewall Jackson was 
famous as a man of wonderful resources and power. Albert 
Sydney Johnston, who was developing into the ablest com- 



lee's surrender at APPOMATTOX 455 

mander of the South, died an untimely death at Pittsburg 
Landing. Next to these may be ranked Pemberton and 
Joseph E. Johnston. 

574. Catholic Officers. The valor and patriotism of Catholics 
again maintained a position corresponding with their earlier his- 
tory. Side by side with the names of Charles Carroll, Barry, La- 
fayette, Moylan, Fitzsimmons, and Archbishop Carroll may be 
found those of Sheridan, Rosecrans, Kearny, Mulligan, and 
Archbishop Hughes. Among the many other Catholic officers 
not mentioned in our text were Shields, Meagher, Newton, 
Ewing, Sands, Hunt, Stone, McMahon, and numerous others, 
the mention of whom would make this list too long. 

At the head of the list of Catholic officers who acquired 
distinction in the war may be placed General Philip Sheri- 
dan. After graduating with honor from "West Point, he 
distinguished himself during the Civil War as commander at 
Booneville, Perryville, Stone River, Missionary Ridge, and 
finally at Appomattox, where General Lee surrendered to him 
the Confederate flag. Upon the declaration of peace he re- 
ceived, with Grant and Sherman, the applause of his country- 
men. Nor did the nation think any less of the hero of Winchester 
because he worshiped God in a Catholic Church and had his chil- 
dren educated in the Catholic Academy of the Visitation nuns. 

Next on the list of our Catholic generals is Rosecrans, the 
last survivor of that remarkable quartet — Grant, Sherman, 
Sheridan, and Rosecrans. He greatly distinguished himself 
in the numerous eventful campaigns carried on by the Army 
of the Cumberland. He was an outspoken and practical 
Catholic, and it was a common occurrence with him to have 
the sacrifice of the Mass offered at his headquarters in the 
field. Sheridan says of him that "a visitor to the city of 
Washington will find no more regular attendant at Mass in 
that decidedly Catholic city than Rosecrans — gallant and 
grand ' Old Rosey, ' the hero and idol of the Army of the 
Cumberland." 



CHRONOLOGICAL EEVIEW 

1861-1865 

Abraham Lincoln's Administration (1861-1865) — Repnblican. 
1861. Abraham Lincoln is inaugurated as the sixteenth 
President. 

The Civil War begins with the attack on Fort Sumter 
(April 12). 

Virginia, Arkansas, North Carolina, and Tennessee join 
the Confederacy. 

Lincoln calls for seventy-five thousand volunteers 
(April 15). Davis calls for volunteers (April 17), 
The attack on the Sixth Massachusetts regiment, while 
passing through Baltimore, occasions the first blood- 
shed of the Civil "War (April 19). 

Lincoln proclaims a blockade of the southern ports 
(April 19). 

General Scott is appointed first in command of the 
Union forces (April). 

The Confederates under Beauregard defeat the Federals 
under McDowell at Bull Run (July). 
The Federals under Baker are defeated at Big Bethel 
(June). 

The Federals under Lyon are defeated in the battles 
of Booneville (June) and again at Wilson's Creek 
(August). 

The Federals under Sigel are defeated by the Con- 
federates under Price at Carthage (July). 
The Unionists are defeated at the battle of Ball's Bluff 
(October). 

The "Trent Affair" occurs (November). 
456 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 457 

General Halleck supersedes Scott in command of the 
Union forces (November), 
1862. The Federals under Grant and Foote defeat the Con- 
federates in the battles of Forts Henry and Donelson 
(February), 

The Confederate ironclad Mcrrimac is defeated in Hamp- 
ton Roads by the Union ironclad Monitor (March). 
The Confederates under Van Dorn are defeated by the 
Unionists under Sigel at Pea Ridge (March). 
The Confederates under Johnston are defeated by the 
Federals under Grant at Shiloh (April). 
New Orleans is captured by the Union fleet under 
Farragut (April), 

The Federals open the Mississippi to Vicksburg by 
taking Island No. 10, Fort Pillow, and Memphis (April- 
June). 

General McClellan supersedes Halleck. 
The Federals under McClellan win the battles of 
Williamsburg, Fair Oaks, and the Seven Days' Battles 
(May- June). 

Jackson makes a dashing raid through the Shenandoah 
Valley. 

The Federals under Pope are defeated by the Con- 
federates under Jackson at Cedar Mountain, and again 
under Lee at Bull Run (August). 

The Confederates under Lee win the battle of Plarper's 
Ferry, but are defeated by McClellan at Antietara 
(September). 

President Lincoln suspends the writ of habeas corpus 
(September). 

Slavery is abolished in the District of Columbia 
(September). 

The first issue of greenbacks is made. 
The Federals under Rosecrans win the battles of luka 
and Corinth (September-October). 



458 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

General Bragg invades Kentucky and is defeated by 
the Federals at Perryville and Murfreesboro. 
General Burnside supersedes McClellan in command 
(November). 

The Federals under Burnside are defeated by the Con- 
federates under Lee at Fredericksburg (December). 
General Hooker supersedes Burnside in command (De- 
cember). 
1863. Lincoln issues the Emancipation Proclamation (Jan- 
uary ]). 

The Federals under Hooker are defeated by the Con- 
federates under Lee at Chancellorsville (May). 
Stonewall Jackson is accidentally shot by his own men 
at the battle of Chancellorsville. 

General Meade supersedes Hooker in command (June). 
West Virginia is admitted to the Union as the thirty- 
fifth state (June). 

The Federals under Meade defeat the Confederates 
under Lee at Gettysburg (July). The battle becomes 
the turning point of the war. 

The Confederates under Lee retreat into Virginia. 
The Federals under Grant capture Vicksburg (July). 
The Confederates under Pemberton surrender Port 
Hudson and the remaining C^onfederate posts on the 
Mississippi River to General Banks (July). 
The Draft Riot occurs in New York City (July). 
The Federals under Rosecrans are defeated by the 
Confederates under Bragg in the desperate battle at 
Chickamauga (September). 

Gettysburg is made a national cemetery and Lincoln 
makes his famous Gettysburg address (November). 
Generals Sherman and Thomas capture Missionary 
Ridge, while Hooker captures Lookout Mountain 
(November). 
The Federals under Burnside defeat the Confederates 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 459 

under Longstreet at Knoxville (November). 
The Federals under Dupont fail to take Charleston, but 
destroy Fort Sumter and blockade the port. 
Congress passes the National Banking Act. 

1864. Archbishop Hughes dies (January), 

General Grant is made lieutenant-general (March). 
General Sherman in his march from Chattanooga to At- 
lanta takes, in succession, Resaca, Dallas, Kenesaw Moun- 
tain, and Atlanta (May-November). 
The Union forces under General Grant, and the Con- 
federates under Lee, fight an indecisive battle at the 
"Wilderness, but Grant attacks them again in the battles 
of Spottsylvania and Cold Harbor (May-July). 
The Union vessel Kearsarge captures and sinks the 
Confederate vessel Alahama (June). 
Early begins his famous raid in the Shenandoah Valley 
(July). 

The Federals under Farragut capture Mobile Bay 
(August). 

Grant sends General Sheridan against Early. 
The Federals under Sheridan win the hard-fought 
battles at Winchester, Fisher's Hill, and Blue Ridge 
(September). 

Nevada is admitted to the Union as the thirty-sixth 
state (October). 

President Lincoln is re-elected (November). 
The Federals under Thomas attack and defeat the Con- 
federates under Hood at Nashville (December). 
The Confederates are defeated by a Union naval fleet 
under Admiral Porter at Fort Fisher (December). 
General Sherman reaches the sea and captures Savan- 
nah (December). 

1865. Sherman marches northward through the Carolinas and 
secures possession of Charleston, Columbia, Bentonville, 
Averysboro, and Raleigh (February). 



460 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Federals under Grant defeat the Confederates 

under Lee in the battles of Five Forks and Petersburg, 

and finally compel them to evacuate Richmond (JuljO- 

The Confederate forces under General Lee surrender 

to General Grant at Appomattox Courthouse and lay 

down their arms (April 9). 

President Lincoln is assassinated by Wilkes Booth 

(April 14). 

Andrew Johnson is inaugurated as the seventeenth 

President (April 15). 



PERIOD OF RECONSTRUCTION AND 
EXPANSION 

CHAPTER XXXII 

ANDEEW JOHNSON 'S ADMINISTEATION 
REPUBLICAN— 1865-1869 

575. Extent of the Period. The period of reconstruction 
and expansion extends from the close of the Civil War in 
1865 to the present time. It covers chiefly the problems grow- 
ing out of the Civil War, the increase in the number of states 
and dependencies since the Civil War, and the general progress 
of the country. 

576. The Successor of Lincoln. The untimely death of 
President Lincoln produced no disorder in the affairs of the 
government. Within three hours Andrew Johnson, the Vice- 
president, quietly assumed the duties of the presidency. He 
retained Lincoln's cabinet, and his views relative to recon- 
structing the Union were similar to those of Lincoln. Still, 
the change of presidents made a great difference in the manner 
of treating the all-important and difficult problems now con- 
fronting the nation. 

Andrew .lohnson (1808-1875) was a native of North Caro- 
lina, but later moved to Tennessee. He was, like Lincoln, of 
humble birth, and had risen to high posts of public trust — 
congressman. Governor of Tennessee, Vice-president — but his 
powers had never been schooled or refined as Lincoln's had 
been. He had not a touch of Lincoln's genius for understand- 
ing and persuading men. He always retained his native 

461 



462 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

roughness; he was rash and headstrong. When Tennessee 
seceded he ignored the action of his state and remained at 
his post in the Senate. He sympathized with southern men 
in almost everything except their hostility to the Union; held 
strict views of states' rights; would yield nothing for the sake 
of accommodation ; and could never be right without so exas- 
perating his opponents as to put himself practically in the 
wrong. Although he had been elected by the National Union 
party, he held many Democratic principles and was soon at 
variance with the Republican Congress. 

577. The Constitution Fails to Provide for Times of Civil 
Strife. The Constitution had suffered a severe strain. It con- 
tained no distinct provisions for sufficient executive powers 
to manage the affairs of the nation during turbulent times of 
civil strife. Circumstances had frequently forced Lincoln, as 
commander-in-chief of the army, to exercise an arbitrary 
power; in short, the Department of War became the real 
government of the country. The President suspended the writ 
of habeas corpus as he pleased. Arbitrary arrests were made 
by the thousand. No one suspected of disloyalty was safe; 
men of all ranks and conditions — judges, mayors of cities, 
editors of newspapers, deserters, and draft resisters — lay in 
prison without hope of trial. All this arbitrary exercise of 
power, though necessary to maintain order in time of war, 
was not expressly provided for in tlie Constitution. 

578. The Problems of Reconstruction and Reunion. Now 
that the war was over, other new and perplexing questions 
not provided for in the Constitution confronted the govern- 
ment. What was the status of the states that had attempted 
secession? How were they to be readmitted to the Union? 
What rights should the emancipated negro enjoy? 

It was universally admitted that after the downfall of the 
Confederacy the seceded states could not resume their rela- 
tions with the Union just where they had been broken off. 
The Supreme Court held that the government from which the 



ANDREW Johnson's administration 463 

states had sought to withdraw was "an indestructible Union 
of indestructible states." Accordingly, these seceded states, 
liaving succeeded neither in severing their connection with 
the Federal government nor in destroying their own existence 
as states, were still states, and states in the Union. But the 
question Avas : In what relation did they now stand to the 
government they had sought to destroy? 

579. Lincoln's Policy of Reconstruction. Even during the 
war President Lincoln had taken steps toward reconstruction; 
that is, he stated the conditions under which the seceded states 
could again govern themselves and be represented in Congress. 
He held that the Union of States is perpetual ; hence, secession 
was virtually impossible ; also, that the Union had not been 
broken; therefore the seceded states, as before, were entitled 
to representation in Congress. Acting on this policy, Lincoln 
issued (December, 1863) an Amnesty Proclamation by which 
he extended full pardon and restoration to all property rights 
(except those in slaves) to all persons who would take an oath 
to supi^ort Congress and the Emancipation Proclamation. Cer- 
tain classes of persons who had taken a prominent part in 
secession, or who had left the service of the United States for 
the service of the Confederacy, were excepted from the am- 
nesty. He also promised that any seceded state in which at 
least one-tenth of its voters of 1860 took the oath might set 
up a state government, and that, with the consent of Congress, 
its members should be given their former places in the National 
House. Acting on this plan, Louisiana, Arkansas, and Tennes- 
see set up so-called "ten per cent" governments and duly 
elected representatives to Congress. 

580. Johnson's Views on Reconstruction. Johnson's views 
on the problem of reconstruction were practically the same as 
those of Lincoln. He lacked, however, Lincoln's tact, and his 
method of reconstruction aroused the indignation of the North 
and drove Congress to open opposition. During the first eight 
months of his presidency. Congress, which was not in session. 



464 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

could not interfere, and Johnson had his own way in dealing 
with the southern states. Availing himself of the opportunity : 
(a) he raised the southern blockade, again opening these ports 

to the world 's trade ; 
(5) he issued a Proclamation of Amnesty similar to Lincoln's, 
except that it excluded a larger number (adding all 
those who, possessing taxable property valued at twenty 
thousand dollars, had voluntarily enlisted in the Con- 
federate service) ; 
(c) he appointed a provisional governor for each of the Con- 
federate states, who was to call a convention of dele- 
gates elected by the qualified white voters. This con- 
vention was required to adopt the following measures : 

(1) declare the ordinances of secession null and void; 

(2) repudiate the Confederate war debt and promise 

never to pay it . 

The new state legislatures were required to abolish slavery 
by ratifying the Thirteenth Amendment. 

The required votes having been passed by all the seceded 
states, Johnson claimed that the states had never been legally 
out of the Union, and that the relation to the Union was now 
complete. He therefore recognized their state governments 
and declared them to be entitled to representation in Congress 
(December, 1865). 

The Emancipation Proclamation set free the slaves in a part 
of the country only. Hence, not only was the right to buy 
more slaves left untouched, but slavery still existed in some 
of the states that had not seceded. Consequently, Congress, 
amidst the most exciting scenes, passed the Thirteenth Amend- 
ment, which, borrowing words from the Ordinance of 1787, 
abolished slavery forever in every state of the Union. The 
amendment, being ratified by three-fourths of the states, be- 
came (December 18, 1865) a part of the Constitution. 

581. The Reconstruction Policy of Congress. Congress, how- 
ever, entertained a plan of reconstruction quite different from 




ANDREW JOHNSON CHARLES SUMNER 

THADDEUS STEVENS WILLIAM H. SEWARD 

RECONSTRUCTION LEADERS 



ANDREW Johnson's administration 465 

that of Lincoln or Johnson. No sooner had this body met 
(December, 1865) than it overthrew Johnson's work, denied 
southern members their seats in Congress, and appointed a 
joint committee of fifteen from the two Houses to consider the 
whole subject of reconstruction. The ruling party (Repub- 
lican) adopted the view that the southern states, as a result 
of their secession, had deprived themselves of all civil govern- 
ment and had forfeited their rights of self-government. It 
further stated that they continued to exist only as disorganized 
communities, subject directly to Congress for government as 
well as for the conditions under which they might return to 
the Union. There was, moreover, a third policy held by cer- 
tain congressmen of extremely radical views, such as Senator 
Charles Sumner and Kepresentative Thaddeus Stevens. These 
maintained that the southern states, by an act of rebellion, had 
destroyed their existence as self-governing commonwealths 
and should be held as conquered provinces and governed as 
territorial dependencies under the sole power of Congress. 

582. Congress Rejects Johnson's Plan. Congress rejected 
the President's plan of reconstruction for the following rea- 
sons : 

(a) it thought that Congress alone had the right to determine 
the conditions under which the states were to be re- 
admitted, and that the President had exceeded his 
authority by acting independently of this body; 
(&) because out of Johnson's eleven reconstructed states 
Tennessee alone had respected the liberty of the freed- 
men. The legislatures of the remaining ten states 
enacted harsh laws, called ''Black Codes," which prac- 
tically again reduced the freedmen to a state of slavery ; 
(g) Congress, wishing to guard against any future payment of 
the Confederate debt, thought that Johnson's plan did 
not adequately provide for this ; 
(d) the North feared that the southern leadere (Democrats), 
together with the Democrats of the North, all of whom 



466 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

were supporters of the President's policy, would rule 
the country as they had done before the war. This they 
meant to prevent by refusing suffrage to the leaders of 
the Confederacy. 

583. The Black Codes. By the Black Codes, unemployed 
freedmen, termed vagrants, or tramps, were subject to arrest 
and fine ; in case the fine could not be paid they could be hired 
out (preferably to their form.er masters) to work out the fine ; 
all free negroes should have employment under written con- 
tract; the quitting of such service would make them liable to 
arrest ; a penalty was fixed for many petty offenses of which 
the negro was commonly guilty; orphans and children whose 
parents did not support them might be ''bound out" by a 
court to employers until they became of age. 

During the war the mass of slaves had remained on the 
plantations, quietly guarding the women and children and 
raising the crops. After the Emancipation Proclamation this 
happy condition of affairs was changed. Thousands of negroes 
left the plantations and flocked to the Federal lines for pro- 
tection. It is said that sixty thousand slaves surrounded 
Grant's army at Vicksburg. Some of the negroes were ad- 
mitted into the Union army or were given garrison duties. 
But the vast majority, even faithful former slaves, became 
good-for-nothing tramps, who refused to work the plantations 
and wandered from place to place, or flocked to the large cities, 
where they lived by begging or stealing. What wonder, then, 
that the southern states found themselves compelled to estab- 
lish severe laws restricting the rights of these dangerous idlers. 
Nevertheless, many of the measures passed by the southern 
legislatures seemed unnecessarily harsh, and practically in- 
troduced a new form of involuntary servitude, if not actual 
slavery. 

584. The Freedman's Bureau Bill. To relieve the suffering 
inevitably occasioned by removing the source of support of 
the freedmen. Congress passed (1865) a Freedman's Bureau 



ANDREW Johnson's administration 467 

Bill, which, the following year (1866), was renewed and 
extended for another two years. Though each time vetoed 
by the President, it was passed by a two-thirds majority over 
his veto. The bill provided for a bureau in the War Depart- 
ment which was : 
(a) to care for sick and helpless freedmen by providing them 

with provisions, clothing, and other necessaries ; 
(&) to appropriate the property of the Confederate govern- 
ment for the education of the negroes ; 

(c) to parcel out abandoned lands to the freedmen, giving no 

one man more than forty acres; and 

(d) to extend military protection to the freedmen. 

The purpose of the Freedman's Bill seemed humane, for, 
since the emancipated negroes no longer enjoyed the support 
of their masters, it would have been cruel to throw them empty- 
handed upon the world. In practice, however, the bill raised 
many difficulties and wrought almost as much harm as good, 
since it led many negroes to quit profitable work and gather 
in idle gangs about the bureau depots. 

585. The Fourteenth Amendment. A Civil Rights Bill was 
passed by Congress (1866). It declared all persons born in 
the United States, and not subject to any foreign power, 
excluding Indians not taxed, to be citizens of the United 
States. The negro was granted all the rights of citizenship 
except the right to vote. He could make contracts and go to 
law in the courts in case civil rights were denied him. The 
President vetoed the bill on grounds of injustice, and for the 
further reason that it gave to the National government dan- 
gerous powers never before exercised. The Senate and the 
House, exasperated by Johnson's stubborn defense of his own 
policy, promptly passed the bill over his veto. 

Though the constitutionality of the Civil Rights Bill was not 
directly challenged by the President, the Republican majority 
of both Houses was determined to secure the principles aimed 
at in the bill, and made it a part of the Constitution by fram- 



468 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

ing and adopting the Fourteenth Amendment (July, 1868). 

This amendment provided : 

(a) that "all persons born or naturalized in the United States 
and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of 
the United States and of the state wherein they 
reside"; 

(6) that representation be based upon population; but if any 
state denied to any of its male citizens above twenty-one 
the right to vote, its representation should be reduced 
accordingly ; 

(c) that all the Confederate leaders who had broken their 

oath to support the Constitution of the United States, 
or had engaged in insurrection, should be excluded 
from holding Federal offices unless pardoned by a two- 
thirds vote of Congress ; 

(d) that it be forever unlawful for the United States or any 

state to pay any debt incurred in aid of rebellion against 

the government of the United States, and that the validity 

of the United States debt should never be questioned. 

The amendment was submitted to the states (1866) for 

ratification and was made a condition of readmission for the 

southern states into the Union. All of these states considered 

the conditions for readmission degrading and rejected the 

terms, except Tennessee, which, having already adopted the 

Thirteenth Amendment, was now immediately restored to the 

Union, while the ten non-reconstructed states were placed 

under military government. 

A great part of the Civil War debt is still unpaid. Never 
except for a short time during Jackson's administration has 
our government been free from debt. 

586. Ill-feeling between the President and Congress. The 
ill-feeling between Congress and the President kept steadily 
increasing. Neither tried to please the other. To make mat- 
ters still worse, Johnson, on a trip through the country, made 
•speeches in many of the western cities, denouncing Congress 



ANDREW Johnson's administrxVtion 469 

and its plan of action, calling it "a factious, domineering, 
tyrannical Congress," ''a Congress violently breaking up the 
Union." His intemperate and undignified language weakened 
rather than strengthened his cause, and disgraced his high 
office. 

587. Reconstruction Program of Congress. The President's 
undignified proceedings, together with the fact that many of 
the southern states rejected the Fourteenth Amendment, in- 
duced Congress to make arrangements for the carrying out of 
compulsory reconstruction. For this purpose the Republican 
committee framed a program which Congress carried out with 
a high hand over Johnson's vetoes. According to this j^rograra : 
(a) Congress, instead of waiting until December, was to con- 
vene on the fourth of March, in order to prevent the 
President from again carrying out independent measures 
of reconstruction ; 

(&) a Tenure of Office Act was to be enacted which would 
limit the power of the President in the removal of 
federal officers ; 

(c) General Grant was given command of the army, to prevent 
Johnson from withdrawing the soldiers from the South. 

588. Reconstruction Acts. Congress, in accordance with its 
high-handed program, now proceeded to the execution of a 
most rigorous policy and passed the Reconstruction Act (1867). 
According to this act : 

(a) the governments of the southern states set up by Johnson 
were overthrown and the ten unreconstructed states 
were divided into five military districts, each under an 
officer of the army and an adequate force of troops ; 

(&) the officers in their respective districts were to provide 
for a constitutional convention in each state. The voters 
for the delegates to the conventions were to be male 
citizens over twenty-one years of age, regardless of race, 
color, or previous condition. Such as could not take the 
so-called ''ironclad" oath, that is, swear that they had 



470 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

not taken up arms against the United States, were ex- 
cluded from voting for delegates; this meant, granting 
suffrage to the negro and denying it to the majority of 
the southern whites ; 

(c) the constitutions adopted by the conventions should pro- 

vide for negro suffrage ; 

(d) the constitutions drawn up by the conventions should be 

ratified by the qualified voters of the districts (negroes, 
and whites who could take the ''ironclad" oath) ; 

(e) the state legislatures formed under these new constitutions 

should ratify the Fourteenth Amendment ; 
(/) all these conditions having been complied with, Congress 
would declare the full restoration of these states to the 
Union and give their senators and representatives their 
places in the National House. Under these conditions 
all the seceded states (except Tennessee, already re- 
stored), were readmitted by 1870. 
589. The Fifteenth Amendment. The Reconstruction Acts 
practically imposed negro suffrage upon the South. In order 
to place this suffrage beyond the power of the state legisla- 
tures, the Fifteenth Amendment, meanwhile adopted by Con- 
gress (1869), forbade any state to deny suffrage to any one on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. It 
was, together with the Fourteenth Amendment, again made a 
condition for the readmission of Virginia, Georgia, Mississippi, 
and Texas, which were belated in their reconstruction. Adopted 
by the necessary number of states, the amendment became a 
part of the Constitution (1870). 

Some of the southern states have since passed laws limiting 
the right to vote to men who can read and write. These laws 
if literally enforced would exclude not only a large proportion 
of negroes but also a great number of whites. But since the 
laws are aimed expressly against the negroes, some of the 
states have added the so-called "grandfather clause," which 
provides that the educational qualifications shall not prevent 



ANDREW Johnson's administration 471 

any man from voting if his ancestors have voted or might 
have lawfully voted at a date earlier than the adoption of 
the Fifteenth Amendment. Thus the ignorant white man is 
allowed to vote while the ignorant negro is barred out. 

590. The Tenure of Office Act. In accordance with the 
custom of his predecessors since Jackson's time, Johnson re- 
moved many Republican officeholders who were not in sym- 
pathy with his administration. This occasioned the Tenure of 
Office Act, by which every officer appointed with the advice 
and consent of the Senate should continue to hold his position 
until the senators agreed to his removal. The Constitution, 
vesting the appointment of important officers in the President, 
with the advice and consent of the Senate, is silent as to the 
process of removal. 

591. Johnson Is Impeached. In spite of the Tenure of Office 
Act, Johnson suspended (1867) Edwin M. Stanton from the 
office of Secretary of War, and appointed General Grant to 
supersede him. The Senate, hereupon, impeached the Presi- 
dent for eleven "high crimes and misdemeanors," which, 
summarized, were his violation of the Tenure of Office Act in 
the removal of Secretary Stanton ; his public speeches against 
Congress, which decreased the confidence of the people in the 
legislative body of the nation ; and his opposition to the 
Reconstruction Act. 

Thus, for the first and only time in our history, was the 
President called to be tried by the Senate. The trial continued 
fo4* two months, with the members of the Senate acting as 
judges and Chief Justice Chase presiding. It was conducted 
with great ability on both sides. At the test vote thirty-five 
senators voted guilty and nineteen not guilty. Consequently, 
there was one vote lacking for a two-thirds majority in the 
Senate, which was necessary for conviction. Stanton there- 
upon resign(^d, and the appointment of General Sehofield, who 
had been nominated as Secretarj^ of War during the impeach- 
ment proceedings, was confirmed. Thus ended the great trial, 



472 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

which had attracted the attention of the civilized world. It 
was the most dramatic incident in the civil history of the 
United States. The country was gratified that the great trial 
did not occasion any popular uprising or serious disturbance 
in business affairs. 

Stanton had held the office of Secretary of War since his 
appointment by Lincoln (1862), and was one of the most fear- 
less and able, though not unbiased, officers that had ever filled 
that position. But in his opposition to Johnson he was clearly 
in the wrong. 

The Tenure of Office Act placed the President in an unendur- 
able position by denying him the right to choose his own cabi- 
net officers. The Act was unwise and prompted by passion. 
It was, fortunately, soon modified and finally repealed in 1887. 

592. The French in Mexico. While the United States was 
still engrossed in civil strife, France, Great Britain, and Spain 
agreed to force Mexico to pay the debts due to these countries. 
Great Britain and Spain, however, soon withdrew their de- 
mands. Napoleon III, Emperor of France, thinking that the 
United States could not interfere because of her civil war, 
determined to establish a French empire upon the ruins of the 
Mexican republic. In 1862 he sent a French invading army 
to Mexico, which by 1864 had overrun the republic and suc- 
ceeded in setting up an empire with Maximilian, archduke of 
Austria (a brother of the Emperor of Austria), as ruling 
monarch. Though the United States considered this an open 
violation of the Monroe Doctrine, she could only protest 
against it, as her hands were bound by the civil war. Imme- 
diately after the war, however (1865), Secretary Seward 
demanded that the French withdraw from Mexico. At the 
same time Sheridan was sent to Texas with fifty thousand 
veterans. The French ruler now withdrew his army. Maxi- 
milian, however, remained, but soon after was taken prisoner, 
tried by court martial, and shot by Mexican authorities, who 
reestablished the republic. 



ANDREW JOHNSON S ADMINISTRATION 



473 



593. The Submarine Telegraph. Cyrus W. Field (1866), 
after several unsuccessful attempts, finally laid the first Atlan- 
tic cable, which established telegraphic communication between 
the Old and the New World. His first attempted Atlantic 
cable (1858) extended from Heart's Content, Newfoundland, 
to Valencia Bay, Ireland. It 

carried, however, only about 
three hundred messages and 
ceased to work after three 
weeks of service. His second 
attempt (1865) also failed, 
the cable parting in mid- 
ocean. With the help of the 
steamship Great Eastern he 
eventually (1866) laid a 
successful cable. 

594. A New State — The 
Purchase of Alaska. During 
Johnson's administration, 
Nebraska was admitted 
(1867), over the President's 
veto, as the thirty-seventh 
state, just in time to take 
part in the presidential elec- 
tion of 1868. 

Through the diplomacy of Secretary Seward, the United 
States (1867) concluded a treaty with the Russian government 
by which it secured possession of the vast territory of Alaska 
(over five hundred and ninety thousand square miles) for 
$7,200,000. By this purchase another European power was 
removed from the American continent. The carrying out of 
the Monroe Doctrine was thus rendered easier. From the time 
of its discovery and exploration by Russians under Vitus 
Bering (1728-1741) until it was ceded to the United States, 
Alaska had been known as "Russian- America." Secretary 




ALASKAN TRADING POST 



474 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Seward was loudly denounced for paying so great a sum of 
money for what was believed to be only a large field of icebergs. 
Since then, however, Alaska has come to be known as wonder- 
fully rich in minerals, forests, fisheries, and furs. 

595. The Burlingame Treaty. By the influence of Anson 
Burlingame, our minister to China, the first embassy ever sent 
from that empire to any foreign power arrived in the United 
States. The result was a treaty between China and the Amer- 
ican Eepublie which promised security of life, liberty, and 
property to the people of either nation while in the territory 
of the other. 

596. Reconstruction Is the Issue of the Campaign of 1868. 
Although all the Confederate states except three — Virginia, 
Mississippi, and Texas — had been reconstructed, and their 
representatives had taken their places in Congress, many 
Democrats denounced the reconstruction work of Congress as 
unconstitutional and declared that if their party should win 
in the election and get control of Congress they would over- 
throw it as null and void. Consequently, reconstruction was 
again the chief issue in the presidential election of 1868. 

The Republican convention at Chicago (May) nominated 
General Grant for President. Its platform demanded the pay- 
ment of the public debt in sound money (coin), advocated an 
amendment to the Constitution establishing manhood suffrage 
throughout the land, promised liberal pensions to soldiers, and 
denounced President Johnson in violent language. 

The Democratic convention at New York (July) nominated 
Horatio Seymour of New York for President. Its platform 
condemned in strong terms the reconstruction policy of the 
Republicans, favored the payment of war bonds, or debts, in 
greenbacks, demanded the immediate restoration of all the 
states to their rights in the Union under the Constitution, and 
lauded President Johnson for his course during the controversy. 

As the greenbacks, or paper notes, were below par, the Demo- 
crats thought the payment of the war bonds in greenbacks 



ANDREW Johnson's administration 475 

instead of gold would increase the stock of money in the 
country, since the government would thus be obliged to issue 
a very large amount of paper money. Thus the period of 
high prices might be prolonged. The party, furthermore, rea- 
soned that the government had borrowed money from the rich 
people, who consequently held the government bonds. Now, 
these rich people could sell their bonds for gold, and with this 
coin purchase greenbacks amounting apparently to double the 
value of their gold ; hence the demand of the Democratic party 
that all bonds be made payable, principal and interest, in 
greenbacks. The Republicans claimed that the payment of the 
war debt in greenbacks would repudiate a part of the debt, 
since the bondholders in purchasing bonds had expected pay- 
ment in gold, and legal tenders were not yet at par, 

597. The Second Plenary Council. The Second Plenary 
Council of the Church in the United States convened (1866) 
at Baltimore and was presided over by Archbishop Spalding 
as Delegate Apostolic. Seven archbishops, thirty-nine bishops, 
two mitred abbots, and one hundred and twenty theologians 
took part in its proceedings. It enacted measures providing 
for the greater uniformity of discipline and the general well- 
ordering of the affairs of the Church in America. The session 
continued for two weeks and closed with a scene of solemn 
grandeur, at which President Andrew Johnson was present. 



CHAPTER XXXIII 

ULYSSES S. GEANT'S ADMINISTEATION 
REPUBLICAN— 1S69-1S77 

598. Grant and Colfax Are Elected. At the election of 1868, 
"Unconditional Surrender" Grant of Civil War fame, the Re- 
publican candidate, was elected President by the great majority 
of one hundred and thirty-four electoral votes over Horatio 
Seymour, the Democratic nominee. Schuyler Colfax was chosen 
Vice-president. 

Ulysses Simpson [originally Hiram Ulysses] Grant (1822- 
1885) was a native of Mount Pleasant, Ohio. He spent four 
years at West Point and later served in the Mexican and Civil 
Wars. Although Grant was absolutely honest in the discharge 
of his duties, his administration as President was not wholly 
successful, owing largely to the fact that some of his advisers 
proved most unworthy. 

599. Three Classes of People Control the South. As a conse- 
quence of the reconstruction policy of Congress, there was a 
complete revolution in the political conditions in the South. 
The party formerly in control was now devoid of power, and 
the government was in the hands of three classes of people : 
(a) negroes, who composed the majority of voters and held 

the places in the legislatures and in Congress once occu- 
pied by the able statesmen of the South ; 

(h) southern white leaders, termed "scalawags," who exerted 
an influence for evil over ignorant and excitable negroes ; 

(c) northern politicians, contemptuously termed "carpet- 
baggers," because it was said they carried their pos- 
sessions in carpet-bags. Though many of these north- 
erners were men of integrity, interested in the negro 
476 



ULYSSES S. grant's ADMINISTRATION 477 

and in the welfare of the South; the greater number 

were unscrupulous adventurers intent on gain. They 

had hastened south to buy at low figures estates of 

insolvent or dead planters, or to secure public offices. 

It was an easy matter for them to persuade the negro 

that the Republicans had set them free, that the southern 

white men, who were Democrats, wished to put them 

back into slavery, and that, therefore, their only hope 

was to vote for Republicans. 

600. Carpet-bag and Negro Rule. Under this new rule of 

carpet-baggers, scalawags, and negroes, known in history as 

the period of carpet-bag government (1868-1876) : 

(a) money was borrowed on state bonds and used corruptly; 

(&) enormous debts were piled up which were expected to be 

paid by the southern whites ; 

(c) heavy taxes were levied, wdiich fell chiefly on the disfran- 

chised classes, since negroes, scalawags, and carpet- 
baggers possessed scarcely any taxable property; 

(d) taxes, appropriations, and loans all flowed into the hands 

of the fraudulent legislatures, contractors, and politi- 
cians ; 

(e) other unbearable indignities were heaped upon the whites. 

Not infrequently ignorant and vicious negroes, filling 
local and state offices, used their power to obtain ven- 
geance upon their former masters and political enemies. 
In brief, the degradation and suffering of the South was 
even greater than in the days of war. How changed 
were the scenes in the legislative halls where once the 
voices of Hayne, Calhoun, and other brilliant southern 
statesmen resounded ! Ignorant negroes sat in the 
Speaker's chair; negro clerks read the resolutions to 
the legislatures; important committees were composed 
of a negro chairman and a majority of negro members. 
The granting of suffrage to the negro before he was educated 
for the purpose was a great mistake, and was rendered still 



478 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

more evil by the reconstruction measures which disfranchised 
the able white people of the South. As a consequence, the 
negro, having had a taste of his new order of life, refused to 
go back to common occupations ; the states, plunged heavily 
in debt by the carpet-bag and negro rule, could not encourage 
industry and education, the sole remedies for the freedraen's 
difficulties ; and, worst of all, race hatred was aroused. Stung 
by the overbearing conduct of the negroes and carpet-baggers, 
the southern whites began a determined effort to regain control 
of their state governments and to prevent the negroes from 
ruling. Peaceable means were first resorted to, but these 
proved of no avail, especially where the negroes were in the 
majority. Before long secret societies were formed, which, 
through mysterious warnings, appearances of ghostly visitors, 
and midnight raids by wiiite-robed horsemen, endeavored to 
frighten the negroes from voting or holding office. The negroes, 
naturally superstitious, saw in these warnings and ghostly 
visitors the spirits of the dead Confederates returning to 
avenge their wrongs. Negroes were frequently whipped. 
Carpet-baggers, agents of the Freedmen's Bureau, and white 
school-teachers were driven away and even murdered. Finally, 
as these organizations, controlled at first by the better class 
of southern people, fell into the hands of the rougher and more 
lawless element, a reign of terror began. 

601. The Ku Klux Klan — Other Societies. The most famous 
of these secret organizations was the Ku Klux Klan. This 
was at first a sort of police, originated by the young men of 
Tennessee (1866) as a means of keeping the negroes under 
control by working upon their superstitions. But it spread 
throughout the South and before long was committing acts of 
extreme violence and outrage. 

At about the same time, a society composed of negroes, 
northerners, and southern whites, known as the Loyal League, 
was formed. Its purpose was to oppose the Ku Klux Klan 
and to protect tlie newly enfranchised negroes in their rights 



ULYSSES S. grant's ADMINISTRATION 479 

as men and citizens. The methods of the two opposing societies 
were quite similar. Consequently, when they came into colli- 
sion the results were often terrible. 

602. The Force Bills or Ku Klux Klan Act. To retaliate 
upon the Ku Klux Klan for its defiance of the reconstruction 
measures, Congress enacted the "Force Bills" (1870-1872). By 
these, severe penalties were fixed for depriving any person of 
civil rights under the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments; 
the polls and election of members to Congress were placed 
under the control of United States officers and courts ; and the 
President was authorized to suspend the writ of habeas corpus 
in any region where he thought it necessary, and to make use 
of the United States troops to maintain order. 

603. The Southern Whites Defeat the Republicans at the 
Polls. In the next few years troops were frequently called 
upon to put down riots, and by 1872 the evils of the Ku Klux 
Klan had been generally suppressed. Meanwhile, however, 
the southern whites (Democrats) managed to defeat the Re- 
publicans at the polls, and by 1876 had obtained control of 
all their state governments. This they brought about by a 
union of all the whites in some of the states ; by causing the 
negroes to remain away from the polls, either by means of 
intimidation and violence, or by various sharp methods in 
voting, including the "stuffing" of ballot boxes, thus carrying 
the elections by fraud. 

604. Grant Is Re-elected. In the election of 1872 Grant de- 
feated Horace Greeley, the Liberal Republican candidate, by 
an overwhelming majority. Henry Wilson of Massachusetts 
was chosen Vice-president. The condition of affairs in the 
South had again formed the campaign issue. Many of the 
Republicans, dissatisfied with Grant's administration, and fa- 
voring a more liberal policy toward the reconstructed states, 
formed the Liberal Republican party. This party wanted the 
reconstruction measures to stand, but demanded a reform in 
the Civil Service, a change in the tariff, and pardon and 



480 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

amnesty for the South. The Democrats accepted both the 
platform and the candidate of the Liberal Republicans, and 
the campaign cry became, '' Anything to beat Grant." 

605, The Alabama Claims — The Washington Treaty. Mean- 
while, war had broken out between Germany and France. 
England, fearing she might be drawn into the conflict, wished 
to assure herself of the friendship of the United States. Con- 
gress seized the opportunity to take up anew what was known 
as the Alabama Claims against Great Britain. These claims 
arose from the losses to American shipping caused by the 
Alabama and other Confederate privateers fitted out in British 
ports during the Civil War. England, though at first unwill- 
ing (1862) even to consider these claims, now asked for a 
commission to settle the differences. As a result a treaty con- 
cluded at Washington (1871) provided for a high commission 
of five members, named by the governments of the United 
States, England, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. It was agreed 
by this treaty : 

(a) that the Alabama Claims should be given to this commis- 
sion which should meet at Geneva, Switzerland ; 
(&) that the fishery claims on the northeastern Canadian 

coasts be referred to another commission; 
(c") that the question of our northwest boundary, not clearly 
defined by the treaty of 1846, be submitted to the 
Emperor of Germany. 

The Geneva Arbitration Commission met, as designated 
(1872), and decided on the "Geneva Award," that is, that 
Great Britain pay the United States for damage done our 
commerce during the Civil War the sum of fifteen million five 
hundred thousand dollars in gold. 

Subsequently, an arbitration committee met at Halifax, Nova 
Scotia, and decided that the United States pay five million five 
hundred thousand dollars for the use of the Canadian shores 
for drying and curing fish, for a period of twelve years. 

In the question of our northwest boundary the German 



ULYSSES S. grant's ADMINISTRATION 



481 



Emperor decided in favor of tlie United States, and assigned 
to the United States the important archipelago of islands lying 
between the continent and the island of Vancouver, 

The "Washington Treaty was a turning point in the diplo- 
matic history of the world, inasmuch as it marked the begin- 
ning of the practice of settling differences between nations by 
arbitration rather than by war. 




JOINING THE TWO PACIITC RAILROADS 



606. The First Transcontinental Railroad. The Civil War 
had shown the necessity of some better means of communica- 
tion between the East and tlie West than the Oregon and 
Santa Fe trails. Two companies were soon formed for tlie 
purpose of constructing a transcontinental railroad — the 
Union Pacific company, which worked from Omaha westward, 
and the Central Pacific, which worked from San Francisco 
eastward. The government gave to the companies financial 



482 A HT8T0RY OP TTTE ITNTTED STATES 

assistance and vast tracts of land along the route. The work- 
men from both directions finally met at Ogden, Utah (1869), 
where the last spike, a golden one, was driven with great 
ceremony, and the Union Pacific Railroad, the first commercial 
link between the Atlantic and Pacific, was completed. 

The construction of this railroad over a line of eighteen 
hundred miles was a gigantic undertaking. Across valleys, 
over, around, and through mountains, the toilsome work pro- 
ceeded slowly for a period of six years. Columbus's dream, a 
route to the rich products of the East, was at last realized — 
the United States was opened not only to fresh sources of 
industry and mines of wealth on the Pacific coast, but also 
to the silks, teas, and spices of Asia. 

607. The Beginning of the Civil Service Reform. In 1871 
the first step toward remedying the abuses of the Spoils System 
was taken. Congress passed a bill for the reform of the Civil 
Service, or the manner of appointing men to public offices. 
According to this measure, officers were to be appointed 
through competitive examinations rather than on the recom- 
mendation of political leaders. For three years a system of 
competitive examinations was followed, but as Congress re- 
fused to vote money for the purpose, the plan was for a time 
abandoned. 

608. Political Scandals. During both of Grant's terms many 
political scandals arose. William M, Tweed and three other 
unscrupulous men constituted the famous "Tweed Ring" in 
New York City. For six years, this ring, through bribery and 
intimidation, controlled the government of the city. During 
these years of fraudulent rule the debt of the city increased 
from twenty million to one hundred and one million dollars, 
while Tweed and his partners accumulated fortunes. The 
ring was finally overthrown (1871), chiefly through the efforts 
of Samuel J. Tilden, a prominent Democrat. Tweed was sen- 
tenced to twelve years' imprisonment and died in prison. The 
other three members of the ring fled from the country. 



TTLYSSES R. grant's ADMINISTRATION 483 

The ''Credit Mobilier"' Company was organized in Penn- 
sylvania for the purpose of constructing the Pacific Railroad. 
It gave some of its stock to members of Congress in order to 
bribe them to vote for certain bills which the company wanted 
passed. The transaction gave rise to one of the greatest 
political scandals in our history. Grant and others high in 
authority were accused of being involved, and the country 
believed that a corrupt congressional "ring" had been partially 
unearthed. Upon investigation (1872) Representatives Ames 
and Brooks were found guilty and censured by Congress. 

The unfavorable impression made by the Credit Mobilier 
affair was heightened by an act passed by Congress (1873), 
only one day before the expiration of its term. This act, 
known as "The Salary Grab," increased the salaries of the 
President, congressmen, and judges of the Supreme Court. In 
the case of congressmen the increase was even to include the 
term which was just about to expire. 

Public opinion condemned "The Salary Grab" and the law 
was repealed, except the provisions affecting the salaries of 
the President and judges. 

The "Whiskey Ring," a combination of revenue officers and 
distillers, centered at St. Louis, defrauded the government of 
the internal revenue tax on distilled liquors. Distillers were 
often forced to enter the ring or meet with ruin in their busi- 
ness. The ring gained a widespread sway and had agents in 
Chicago, Milwaukee, Peoria, Cincinnati, New Orleans, and 
Washington. President Grant's private secretary and more 
than fifty other government officers Avere implicated in the 
corrupt affair. Upon secret investigation the fraud was dis- 
covered (1875). Over two hundred persons were indicted. 
Within ten months the government had been defrauded of one 
million six hundred and fifty thousand dollars. 

Government agents mismanaged Indian affairs in the West, 
and, what is worse, they were aided in their corrupt proceed- 
ings by officials at Washington. Secretary of War Belknap 



484 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

accepted bribes from Indian agents, but escaped impeachment 
by resigning before the resohition passed the House. 

About this time (1871) San Domingo, which comprised a 
large part of Haiti, applied for admission into the United 
States. The annexation, after being warmly debated in Con- 
gress, was rejected. It was charged that the scheme of the 
accession of San Domingo was promoted by government agents 
who, having land in that island, schemed to increase its value. 

609. Financial Panic of 1873. Great panics occurred after 
the war of 1812, also in 1837, and again in 1857. Very similar 
was the financial crash of 1873. It was preceded by a period 
of general prosperity. People wanted to get rich easily and 
quickly. They undertook great business enterprises on bor- 
rowed capital. Railroad mileage grew faster than the popu- 
lation. Fortunes were made by some and lost by others in 
buying tracts of land in unsettled regions and increasing the 
value of the land by extending railroads through them. Mean- 
while, the supply of money in the country decreased ; prices 
fell suddenly ; and with the failure of the rich banking house 
of Jay Cooke & Co., of New York City, a terrible financial 
panic began which swept over the entire country, leaving 
thousands of business enterprises in ruins and millions of poor 
either without, support or with greatly reduced wages. Only 
after five or six years did the country recover from the effects 
of this panic. 

The causes occasioning the crisis of 1873 may be outlined as 
follows : 

(a) during the war money was plentiful, owing to the issue of 
bank notes and greenbacks; and prices, which always 
depend partly on the supply of money in the country, 
were high; 
(h) after the war the stock of money was decreased, for, 

(1) the government witlidrew one hundred million dol- 
lars of greenbacks from circulation by paying 
that nnich of its national debt; 



ULYSSES S. grant's ADMINISTRATION 485 

(2) over sixty million dollars in gold and silver were 

sent to European countries, because this nation 
imported more goods from these countries than 
it exported to them; 

(3) the fires in Chicago and Boston destroyed about 

three hundred million dollars' worth of property; 

(c) under the existing conditions both paper money and indus- 

trial securities (bonds, mortgages, etc.) represented 
fictitious rather than real values; 

(d) prices fell sviddenly, false valuations were discovered, and 

many people, accustomed to spend money freely, had 
gone heavily into debt and now found it impossible to 
pay these debts. 

610. The Inflation Bill. Hoping to relieve the distress result- 
ing from the panic by getting more money into circulation, 
Congress passed (1874) the "Inflation Bill," which increased 
the amount of legal tender notes. President Grant, however, 
vetoed the bill on the ground that prosperity could not perma- 
nently result from artificial inflation or increase of the money 
supply. 

611. The Resumption of Specie Payment. The large issue 
of paper money had driven. gold and silver out of circulation. 
In 1875, Congress passed a bill that, on January 1, 1879, the 
government resume "Specie Payment," that is, make the paper 
dollar equal to a dollar in gold. A reserve of considerably 
more than one hundred million dollars was in the treasury for 
the redemption of paper money. 

612. The "Crime of 1873"— Political Reaction. In 1873, 
Congress dropped the silver dollar from our coinage and 
ordered that nothing be coined for home use but gold, small 
silver pieces, and "coppers." This left the gold coin the only 
legal standard of value. The discovery of rich silver mines 
in Nevada and elsewhere had so reduced the value of the metal 
that many European nations stopped coining it. For these 
reasons Congress also dropped "the dollar of our fathers," as 



486 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

it was called. Many people, however, considered the coinage 
act of 1873 a mistake and denounced it as the "Crime of 1873." 
They thought it was but the work of wealthy men in possession 
of government bonds for which they wanted pay in nothing 
cheaper than gold. The new coinage act ordered the coinage 
of some pieces of silver called "trade dollars," not for use at 
home, but in our trade with China, in competition with Spanish 
and Mexican dollars. 

These various currency enactments seemed to change the 
standard by which values and prices were measured, and gave 
rise to the Greenback party, which demanded that the green- 
backs be reissued. The Patrons of Husbandry, commonly 
called Grangers, a party formed by farmers throughout the 
country, demanded that the government put more money into 
circulation and prevent railroads from collecting extravagant 
freightage. The Democrats blamed the Republicans not only 
for the panic of 1873 but also for the numerous scandals occa- 
sioned by official corruption. As a result of this discontent 
and the hard times, the Democrats overwhelmingly carried the 
congressional elections in 1874 and hoped to do the same in 
the presidential election in 1876. 

613. The Tilden-Hayes Campaign. In the campaign of 1876 
the Republican platform demanded the payment of the national 
debt in coin, a reform of the Civil Service, a tariff protecting 
American labor, an investigation of Chinese immigration, and 
that no further land grants be given to corporations. They 
nominated a "dark horse," Rutherford B. Hayes, of Ohio, for 
the presidency. 

The Democrats charged the Republicans with corruption. 
Their platform demanded reform in the manner of appointing 
government officers, favored a protective tariff, and opposed 
granting government lands to corporations composed of pri- 
vate individuals. Their candidate for the presidency was 
Samuel J. Tilden, of New York, the prosecutor of the famous 
"Tweed Ring." 



ULYSSES S. grant's xVDMINlSTRATlON 487 

The "Greenback," or Independent National party, in its 
platform demanded a repeal of the Specie Resumption Act 
and an increase of the currency by a larger issue of greenbacks. 
It named Peter Cooper, of New York, as its candidate. 

The Prohibition party demanded the destruction of the liquor 
traffic by Congress, and nominated General Greene Clay Smith, 
of Kentucky, for tlie presidency. 

614. The Weather Bureau. In 1870 Congress made an 
appropriation for the establishment of a Weather Bureau at 
Washington, to be connected by telegraphic communication 
with stations of observation all over the country. By means 
of this bureau, forecasts of storms, dangerous winds, rains, 
cold waves, and heavy frosts are made with considerable 
accuracy. This bureau has saved billions of dollars to farmers 
and to shipping interests, and has prevented the loss of thou- 
sands of lives by displaying its warning signals along the coast. 
The Weather Bureau was originally a branch of the War De- 
partment, but since 1891 it has been under the control of the 
Department of Agriculture. 

615. Indian Affairs. The Indian affairs of the country at 
this period were involved in difficulties. President Grant (1870) 
divided the Indians among the various religious denomina- 
tions of the country, but did not give a single superinten- 
dency to Catholics. Only comparatively few agencies were 
confided to the Catholic Church, the first and ever-faithful 
protector of the Indian. Thus the Catholic Indians of the 
United States, many of whose forefathers had been converted 
by Catholic missionaries long before Protestants set foot on 
our soil, were lianded over to Protestant denominations. 
Naturally, Grant's action only increased the difficulties. 

The Modoc Indians refused to be removed from their hunting 
grounds in California to their reservation in Oregon, and as a 
result war ensued (1872). In the midst of a peace conference 
held between the Indians and the white agents, the Indians 
treacherously slew General (-anby and Dr. Thomas. The 



488 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Modoes were then besieged and forced to surrender. Their 
chief, Captain Jack, and other prominent leaders were 
executed. 

The Sioux Indians had been assigned a reservation in the 
Black Hill country, which comprised parts of Dakota and 
"Wyoming. When a portion of this country was invaded by 
gold seekers, Congress canceled the Indian title to that part 
of it. This act angered the Indians, who, under their famous 
chief, Sitting Bull, became hostile. United States troops were 
sent to subdue them. In June, 1876, a force of nearly three 
hundred men under General George A. Custer was massacred 
at Little Big Horn River by nine thousand Sioux. Sitting Bull 
thereupon retreated into English territory, but kept menacing 
the western country till the Canadian authorities commanded 
him to abandon all hostile plans or leave their country. He 
finally sued for peace and returned to the United States. 

616. Destructive Fires. A great fire broke out in Chicago 
in October (1871). It raged for two days and laid waste 
many square miles, including the business portion of the city. 
Two hundred million dollars' worth of property was destroyed, 
one hundred thousand persons were rendered homeless, and 
two hundred and fifty lives were lost. Contributions from 
nearly all parts of the world, amounting to more than half a 
million dollars, were sent for the relief of the homeless and 
suffering people. 

The following year the business section of Boston was also 
destroyed by fire and eighty million dollars' worth of property 
was swept away. 

At about the time of the Chicago disaster, fearful forest fires, 
sweeping through the timber districts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, 
and Michigan, consumed entire villages and caused great loss 
of life and property. 

617. The Centennial Exhibition— A New State. In 1876, the 
hundredth anniversary of the Declaration of Independence 
was celebrated by a centennial exhibition at Philadelphia, in 



ULYSSES S. grant's ADMINISTRATION 



489 



which all the civilized nations of the world took part. The 
Centennial Exhibition revealed to the world the richness and 
variety of our natural productions and the superiority of the 
United States over all other countries in useful inventions. 
The most remarkable novelties exhibited were the telephone, 
invented by Graham Bell of Massachusetts, and the application 
of the electric light. 

Colorado, the ''Centen- 
nial state," entered the 
Union as the thirty-eighth 
state, in 1876. 

618. The First American 
Cardinal. During Grant's 
administration occurred 
one of the most memorable 
events in the history of 
the Church of the United 
States — Pius IX, of bless- 
ed memory, gave the 
American Catholics their 
first Cardinal in the per- 
son of the Venerable John 
McCloskey, the successor 
of Archbishop Hughes in 
the Archiepiscopal See of 
New York. His solemn 
investiture took place in 

the unfinished St. Patrick's Cathedral (April 27, 1875), which 
edifice His Eminence later solemnly dedicated to the service of 
God (May, 1877). 

The last public act of Cardinal McCloskey is one for which 
the American Church will ever feel deeply grateful. The 
Italian government 's act of spoliation of ecclesiastical property 
threatened also (1884) to expropriate the American College at 
Rome. The Cardinal at once laid the matter before President 




CARDINAL MCCLOSKEY 



490 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Arthur, appealing for the protection of the institution as the 
property of American citizens. As a result, the Secretary of 
State, through the American minister, brought the case to the 
notice of the Italian government and the college was saved. 

619. Death of Great Men. During Grant's administration 
the following public men died : Edwin Stanton, Secretary of 
War under Lincoln (1869) ; General Robert E. Lee, Confeder- 
ate leader (1870) ; General George H. Thomas, the "Rock 
of Chickamauga" (1870) ; William H. Seward, Secretary of 
State under Lincoln (1872) ; Samuel P. B. Morse, inventor 
of the electric telegraph (1872) ; Horace Greeley, the great 
journalist (1872) ; General Meade, of Gettysburg fame (1872) ; 
and Andrew Johnson, successor to Lincoln in the presidency. 



CHAPTER XXXIV 

EUTHEEFORD B. HAYES'S ADMINISTRATION 
REPUBLICAN— 1877-1881 

620. Hayes and Wheeler Are Elected. Owing to the 
extraordinary nature of the election of 1876, a joint high 
commission was appointed, for the first time in the history of 
the country, to determine the result of the election. 

Twice in our history (1800, 1824) the electoral college failed 
to choose a President, but only once has there been a presi- 
dential election disputed in such a manner as the centennial 
election of 1876. A Democratic majority seemed to sweep the 
country. But in three of the southern states — Louisiana, 
South Carolina, and Florida — where carpet-bag rule was still 
in existence, there were rival state governments and governors. 
The officers who canvassed the election returns were Repub- 
licans, and rejected the votes of certain districts on grounds 
of fraud and intimidation, and declared the Hayes electors 
chosen. Two sets of votes were sent from these states to the 
president of the Senate to be counted. Oregon, too, owing to 
the question as to the qualification of a Republican elector, 
sent in double returns. The Senate, being Republican, ac- 
cepted the Republican returns, while the House, being Demo- 
cratic, considered the Democratic returns as the true ones. 
The Democrats could not liope to revoke the rule in operation 
since 1865, that the electoral vote of any state should not be 
counted if either house objected, even though the House of 
Representatives — the larger body — was Democratic. As it was, 
Tilden had one hundred and eighty-four undisputed votes, and 
the counting of one vote from the states in dispute would make 
him President. On the other hand, all the votes from the 

491 



492 A HISTORY OF TPIE UNITED STATES 

disputed states would be required to give Hayes a majority. 
Since no method was provided by the Constitution to settle 
which of the disputed votes should be counted, Congress finally 
decided that each case should be referred to a joint high 
commission composed of five senators (three Republicans and 
two Democrats), five representatives (three Democrats and 
two Republicans), and five justices of the Supreme Court (two 
of each party, the fifth to be chosen by these four). The fifth 
justice selected was a Republican. This tribunal of eight 
Republicans and seven Democrats at length decided Hayes 
elected, only two days before the time set for his inauguration 
(March 4). The Democrats were naturally disappointed and 
dissatisfied, and claimed that the electoral commission had been 
partisan in its decision. The excitement and bitterness aroused 
by the contest, however, subsided, and Hayes was peacefully 
inaugurated. 

Rutherford B. Hayes (1822-1893.,). was a native of Ohio and a 
graduate of Kenyon College of his own state and Harvard Law 
School of Massachusetts. During the war he entered the Union 
army and rose to the rank of brigadier-general. He resigned 
this rank, however, upon being chosen representative of his 
district in Congress. He served two terms as congressman, 
after which he was thrice chosen governor of his state. Though 
not brilliant as a popular party leader, he was noted for liis 
great moral courage, good judgment, and high integrity. 
Owing to the dispute over his election, he entered upon his 
office under very unfavorable conditions, but he soon proved 
himself admirably qualified to lead the nation during the time 
of peace and conciliation upon which it was just entering. 

621. A New Era. With the administration of President 
Hayes the nation emerged from the dark shadows of the Civil 
War to enter upon an era of peace, unity, and progress. The 
old questions of states' rights and slavery, which had occupied 
the attention of the nation for more than half a century, were 
now replaced by the problems of curr-ency regulation, reform 



RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 'S ADMINISTRATION 493 

of the monetary system, revisions of the tariff, regulation of 
railroads, corporations, and trusts, reform of the ballot, expan- 
sion of territory, and world politics, 

622. The Solid South. President Hayes, desirous of reestab- 
lishing the peace and friendship formerly existing between the 
North and South, wisely did what the opposing Democratic 
party most favored, and what many of his own party opposed — 
he withdrew the Federal troops from the South. The carpet-bag 
governments, being unable to stand without military support, 
were overthrown by the southern Democrats, who at once 
obtained control of these states. From this time forward the 
white vote of the South assumed control and the negro ceased 
to govern. This event marked the beginning of a better feeling 
between the two sections, which was still further increased by 
the appointment of a Democrat, David M. Key, as Postmaster- 
General by President Hayes. The epoch of reconstruction had 
finally come to a close (1877). 

623. New Industrial Conditions. During the war, when 
people had been forced to do business on a large scale — to 
make rifles and cannon; to furnish food and to manufacture 
clothing ; and to construct gunboats and warships — they 
learned from experience that there was more gain in united 
action than in competition. After the war this fact led to the 
formation of corporations, that is, the combining of the capital 
and interests of several men for doing business. Many of these 
corporations, proceeding still further, united so as to make one 
great company, known as a "trust." For example, instead 
of there being many separate railroad companies in the United 
States, a few soon gained control of the great lines. Instead 
of a great many independent oil companies, the Standard Oil 
Company eventually managed to control nearly all the coal 
oil in the country. The same may be said of other classes of 
industries — cotton, sugar, tobacco, steel, etc. Naturally, under 
such conditions the contrast between the rich and poor became 
more apparent. The trusts crowded out the smaller corpora- 



494 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tioiis and the weaker stockholders. Large numbers of women 
and children were employed in factories, while a reduction of 
wages and an increase in the duties and hours of labor for 
employees followed. The result of the new industrial condi- 
tions was, naturally, a general feeling of discontent among the 
laboring classes. 

624. Labor Unions. In order to check the alarming develop- 
ment and aggressiveness of capitalists and corporations, which 
threatened to oppress and degrade the toiling masses more 
and more, labor unions, which had existed in our country even 
before the Constitution, now became more numerous and wide- 
spread. Notable among these unions was the Knights of Labor, 
an organization which included in its membership workers of 
all industries. It gained hundreds of thousands of members 
and exerted a great influence all over the country. The pur- 
poses of the unions may be summarized as follows : 

(a) the distribution of sick and death benefits; 

(&) the fostering of a spirit of cooperation among workingmen ; 

(c) the spread of educational influence, through meetings, 

papers, and discussions ; 

(d) common action looking toward the increase of wages and 

the decrease of working hours; 

(e) a demand for legislation insuring the safety and comfort 

of laborers and the protection of women and children. 

625. Strikes — Black Lists — Boycotts. The two primary 
objects of most labor unions were the increase of wages and 
the decrease of hours of labor. In case a company refused to 
grant these, or otherwise failed to satisfy the demands of the 
union, the workingmen united in a "strike," that is, stopped 
working and kept other men from working in their places, till 
some agreement had been made. The employers, in turn, united 
against the workingmen by making out "black lists" contain- 
ing the names of the leaders of the union men, to whom, from 
that time forward, they agreed to refuse employment. The 
workingmen sometimes decided to "boycott" a firm, that is. 



R|TTHERP()Rn B. HAYES 'S ADMINISTRATION 495 

they refused to trade with it, or even handle its goods for 
transportation. In the early years of this period the strikers 
were seldom successful. 

The first great strike occurred in 1877, when several of the 
leading railroads had reduced the wages of their employees. 
For two weeks trains did not run, and mobs held possession 
of railroad stations and shops. At Pittsburg, the center of 
the storm, property was destroyed by the rioters and several 
persons were killed. The national troops, however, restored 
order. This railroad strike was contagious and soon spread 
to mining, manufacturing, and other industries. In San Fran- 
cisco the riots (1877) consisted not so much in railroad strikes 
as attacks on employers of Chinese laborers. 

The Chinese had come to California in large numbers after 
the Burlingame Treaty. They clung to their customs and 
superstitiors, worked for low wages, returned home with their 
earnings, and made no pretense whatsoever of becoming citi- 
zens. Hence they were undesirable competitors of white 
laborers. Congress attempted to enact an anti-Chinese law 
for the protection of American labor; the bill, however, was 
vetoed by President Hayes. 

626. The Yellow Fever Epidemic. During the summer of 
1878 the South was visited by a dreadful malady, the yellow 
fever. This epidemic raged with terrible fatality, especially 
in New Orleans and Memphis, and over fourteen thousand 
persons fell victims. Strict quarantine and a system of dis- 
infection were established in nearly every city of the country. 
Aid was sent to the afflicted cities from all parts of the 
Union. 

627. Eads and the Mississippi Jetties. During Hayes's ad- 
ministration an achievement of vast importance to the South 
was accomplished (1875-1879) by Captain B. Eads of St. Louis, 
the builder of the ironclads used during the war, and of the 
great steel arch bridge spanning the river at St. Louis. The 
large quantities of mud and sand carried seaward by the 



496 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Mississippi-Missouri gradually filled up the mouths of the 
stream and prevented the passage of heavy steamers. Re- 
peated attempts had been made and millions of dollars 
expended by both the United States and Louisiana govern- 
ments for the removal of the bars and the deepening of the 
channel. Captain Eads, after great opposition, was finally 
allowed by Congress to try the "jetty system" used in the 
low countries of Europe. By means of thousands of bundles 
of faggots he narrowed the channel so as to increase the force 
of the current to such a degree as to sweep out its own channel, 
thus making it possible for large steamers to pass up to New 
Orleans or out to sea without difficulty. The success of this 

gigantic undertaking 
r--y-.=-.-3?-rT^-------,-^-=.--«.-^" ;., ,^.„ helped to make New 

Orleans by far the 
largest and most im- 
portant commercial 
city of the South. 

628. The Bland- 
Allison Bill. Owing 
to the discovery of 
new and rich silver 
mines in some of the 
western states and to popular opposition to the discontinuance 
of the silver dollar coinage. Congress now decided to remone- 
tize silver by providing that a certain amount should be pur- 
chased and coined each month. Accordingly, an act known as 
the Bland-Allison Bill (from the men who presented this meas- 
ure) was passed. It provided: 

(a) for the purchase and coinage into dollars of not less than 
two million nor more than four million dollars' worth 
of silver each month. The coinage of this silver was 
to be at the rate of sixteen to one, that is, sixteen pounds 
of silver were to be coined into the same number of 
dollars as one pound of gold; 




EADS BRIDGE 



RUTHERFORD B. HAYES 'S ADMINISTRATION 497 

(&) that silver be a legal tender in payment of debts at face 
value ; 

(c) that Congress provide for depositing the silver thus coined 
in the treasury, and issue certificates as currency in its 
place, owing to the fact that so much silver in circula- 
tion would prove inconvenient. The Bland-Allison Bill, 
passed over the President's veto, stimulated the pro- 
duction of silver and greatly encouraged the mining 
industries in Colorado, Nevada, and other states of the 
West. 

629. The Resumption of Specie Payment. According to the 
act (1875) providing for the resumption of specie payment, the 
national treasury was fully prepared at the appointed time 
(January, 1879) to exchange the people's greenbacks at par 
value for gold. The people, however, even those who had 
been hoarding legal tender notes for that express purpose, 
now showed no desire to obtain gold when it was worth no 
more than silver or greenbacks, because paper money was so 
much more convenient to handle. Since 1879 our paper money 
has been equal to gold or silver, and the government has ever 
since held to the policy of maintaining the three kinds of 
money on an equality. 

630. The Presidential Campaign of 1880. President Hayes 
had taken a firm stand against political corruption. Believing 
that "He serves his party best who serves his country best," 
he had made fitness a test in his appointment of public officers, 
and had surrounded himself with a Cabinet of good advisers ; 
in brief, he had given the country a capable, peaceful admin- 
istration. He did not, however, enjoy popularity with the 
political leaders. Consequently, when the time of election 
drew near he was not a candidate for re-election. His with- 
drawal of the Federal troops, hitherto maintained in the South 
to secure fair elections, removed the last obstacle in the way 
of negro disfranchisement. 

In the election of 1880 there were four parties in the field. 



498 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The Republicans nominated James A. Garfield of Ohio on a 
platform favoring a protective tariff, demanding a complete 
reform in the Civil Service, opposing further grants of public 
land to railroads and other corporations, and demanding the 
suppression of polygamy in Utah. 

The Democrats named Winfield S. Hancock of Pennsylvania 
as presidential candidate on a platform demanding a tariff for 
revenue (not protective) and the distribution of public lands 
to actual settlers (not to corporations). 

The Greenback Labor party nominated James B. Weaver of 
Iowa on a platform declaring that the government, and not 
banking corporations, should issue all money, that public lands 
should be kept for actual settlers, and that Congress should 
regulate commerce between the states. 

The Prohibition party nominated their great temperance 
leader, General Neal Dow of Maine. 




RUTHKRFORD B. HAYES 

JAMES A. GARFIELD 

GROVER CLEVELAND 



CHESTER A. ARTHUR 



BENJAMIN HARRISON 



CHAPTER XXXV 

THE GARFIELD-ARTHUE ADMINISTRATION 
REPUBLICAN— 1SS1-18S5 

631. Garfield and Arthur Are Elected. At the election of 
1880 the Republican candidate, James A. Garfield, was elected 
by a majority of fifty electoral votes over Hancock, the Demo- 
cratic nominee. Chester A. Arthur was chosen Vice-president. 
The result of the election was remarkable for its clear division 
between the two sections, the North and the South. The 
Republicans carried all the northern states except New Jersey, 
Nevada and California; the Democrats carried every southern 
state. 

James A. Garfield (1831-1881), a native of Ohio, grew up in 
a log cabin in the backwoods of his native state. He became 
a lawyer, and after filling a professorship at Hiram College, 
Ohio, entered the Union army and attained the rank of major- 
general. This position he resigned to serve as representative 
in the National House until 1880, when he was elected Senator. 
Before the time of entering upon his duties as Senator, he was, 
however, elected President. While in public life he exhibited 
administrative talent of high order. 

632. Garfield Is Assassinated. Although the country was 
at peace and general prosperity prevailed at the beginning of 
Garfield's administration, the new President became at once 
involved in factional troubles due to the Spoils System. He 
had been in office only four months when he was shot (July 2, 
1881) in a railroad station at Washington, by a disappointed 
and half-crazed office-seeker, Charles Guiteau. The wounded 
President hovered between life and death during the hot 
summer months and died September 19, at the seashore, at 

499 



500 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had been taken in the hope 
that the ocean air would benefit him. Pie was mourned by the 
whole nation. 

633. Arthur Assumes the Office. A^ice-president Chester A. 
Arthur took the presidential oath at his home in New York 
only a few hours after Garfield's death. Two days later he 
made a public renewal of the oath in the Capitol at Washington 
in the presence of the justices of the Supreme Court. 

Chester A. Arthur (1830-1886) was a native of Vermont. 
He became a lawyer, and took part in the Civil War, but he 
was little known by the country outside of New York. Fears 
were entertained that the consequences which followed the 
succession of Vice-presidents Tyler and Johnson might be re- 
peated, but, fortunately, Arthur proved himself an able, fear- 
less, and impartial executive. 

634. The Star Route Frauds. It was found (1881) that high 
officials of the government, including United States Senator 
Dorsey and Second Assistant Postmaster-General Brady, had 
conspired with the mail-carrying contractors of the "star 
routes ' ' and defrauded the government of large sums of money. 
The star routes were mail lines in the middle west, where mail 
could not be carried by railroads or steamboats. They were 
thus called because the stations were marked on the map by 
stars. At the time the pay for the service on the respective 
routes was $143,169. By increasing the number of trips per 
week and shortening the contract time for each trip, contract- 
ors managed to raise the compensation to $622,808. The profits 
were alleged to have been divided between the contractors and 
the members of the ring at Washington. The principal 
offenders were tried but not convicted. 

635. The Civil Service Reform Act — The Pendleton Act. The 
Spoils System had been producing its evil results for more than 
half a century, and a great many political scandals could be 
traced directly to it. Still, no political party had the courage to 
abolish the system. The party out of power always denounced 



THE GARFIELD-ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION 501 

it, while the party in power was glad of the opportunity to award 
the offices to its political workers. During Grant's presidency 
an effort was made to reform the Civil Service, and President 
Hayes ineffectively urged Congress to continue the work. Now 
popular opinion had become loud in its demand for reform. 
As a result, the Pendleton Civil Service Act, so called from 
its author, Senator Pendleton of Ohio, was passed (1883) by 
the united efforts of the two parties and received the signature 
of the President. This act, introducing the "merit system," 
as it was called, provided that applicants for certain public 
offices should be examined by civil service examiners appointed 
by the President; that officers should not be removed for 
political reasons ; that assessments should not be made upon 
officeholders to pay campaign expenses ; and that a commission 
be appointed to manage and develop the new system. Presi- 
dent Arthur applied this system at once to the departments at 
Washington and to all customhouses and post-offices where 
more than fifty clerks were employed. It has since been 
extended to the railway mail service, to the Indian service, 
and other offices. 

636. Reduction of Postage on Letters. Congress passed 
(1883) a law reducing the rate on letters from three to two 
cents for each half ounce or fraction thereof. Two years later 
(1885) letter postage was reduced to two cents for each ounce 
or fraction thereof, while postage on newspapers and other 
regular periodicals was reduced from two cents to one cent per 
pound. Provision was also made for delivering letters by 
special messengers within the limits of free-delivery offices. 
An extra ten-cent stamp was required for the special delivery. 
Postage stamps were introduced in 1847, but did not come into 
general use until 1855. Stamped envelopes were first furnished 
by the government in 1852, and postal cards in 1872. 

637. Centennials. In 1881 the nation celebrated the hun- 
dredth anniversary of the British surrender (1781) at York- 
town by a great naval display. After the ceremonies President 



502 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Artliur ordered a national salute to the British flag in recog- 
nition of our country's friendship with Great Britain. To 
mark the hundredth anniversary of the first exportation of 
cotton, the South opened (1881) a great cotton exhibition at 
Atlanta, Georgia, and another on a much larger scale (1884) 
at New Orleans, the greatest cotton market in America. The 
importance of these expositions was not so much in the display 
of any special article as in the fact that they directly proved 
that the South had, in truth, become a "New South," with 
tliousands of manufacturing and mining enterprises and thou- 
sands of miles of 
railroads. Where in 
1784 one bale of 
cotton was exported 
from Charleston, 
South Carolina, mil- 
lions of bales were 
now exported. The 
white man took part 
with the black in 
common labor and 
trade enterprises, 
while the freedman 
now received com- 
pensation for his 
labor and enjoyed a home of his own. Great numbers of 
schools were maintained for the blacks and whites, though 
the two races strictly avoided, as is still the case, all social 
intercourse. 

638. Restriction of Chinese Immigration. Congress had 
repeatedly attempted, without success, to exclude the Chinese 
from the country. In 1880 a treaty was negotiated with the 
Chinese government by which Chinese immigration might be 
stopped by the United States. Consequently, in 1882 Congress 
passed an act forbidding Chinese immigration for a period of 





A COTTON FIELD 



THE GARFIELD- ARTHUR ADMINISTRATION 503 

ten years. This enactment was soon followed by another and 
more stringent law in 1885. 

Neither of these Chinese exclusion laws was perfectly drawn, 
and hence they were easily evaded hy immigration through 
Canada and in other ways. 

639. The Brooklyn Bridge. One of the events during 
Arthur's administration which proved the rapid progress of 
the country was the completion (1883) of the great Brooklyn 
suspension bridge. It spanned the East River and connected 
New York City and Brooklyn. In design and construction this 
bridge is a most stupendous engineering Avork. 

640. The Tariff Becomes a Party Issue. In 1862 the tariff 
was considerably increased to raise sufficient revenue for 
carrying on the Civil War. This tariff had not since been 
reduced, and hence a large surplus had accumulated in the 
treasury, which fact withheld much money from circulation. 
It was generally feared that the large surplus hoarded in the 
national treasury and withdrawn from circulation might finally 
cause a financial panic. The Civil "War debt had already been 
considerably reduced, but the surplus could not, as yet, be 
used to pay off the rest of it, because the debt had been 
refunded by issuing new bonds at a lower rate of interest, 
instead of paying the old bonds as they became due, and these 
new obligations had not yet fallen due. It was, therefore, 
desired by many prominent leaders of both parties that the 
income be reduced by a modification of the tariff'. During 
Arthur's term an unsuccessful attempt was made to effect this, 
and as the time for the presidential election approached, the 
tariff question and Civil Service Reform became prominent 
campaign issues. 

641. The Campaign of 1884. The campaign of 1884 was a 
stirring one. Again there were four parties in the field. 

The Republicans in their convention at Chicago nominated 
James G. Blaine of Maine, who, because of his magnetic 
personality, was called the "'plumed knight." He had been 



504 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Speaker of the House for three consecutive terms; his public 
record was long and brilliant. The Democrats at St. Louis 
named Grover Cleveland of New York as their candidate;' 
the National Greenback, the former Greenback party, chose 
Benjamin F. Butler of Massachusetts; and the Prohibition 
party John P. St. John of Kansas. Blaine had been suspected 
of dishonorable dealings with corporations while a member of 
Congress; hence, his nomination caused a split in the Repub- 
lican party. The faction which refused to support Blaine 
assumed the name Independents, but were sarcastically called 
"Mugwumps" (an Indian term, meaning big or important 
men) by their opponents. 



CHAPTER XXXVI 

GEOVER CLEVELAND'S ADMINISTRATION 
DEMOCRAT — 1885-1889 

642. Cleveland and Hendricks Are Elected. At the vigor- 
ously contested election of 1884 the Democrats for the first 
time since 1857 were victorious. Grover Cleveland was elected 
by a majority of thirty-five electoral votes over the Republican 
candidate, James G. Blaine. Thomas A. Hendricks was chosen 
Vice-president. 

Grover Cleveland (1837-1908) was a native of New Jersey. 
He received a fair education, studied law, and entered upon 
its practice at Buffalo, New York. After honorably filling 
many local offices, he became the governor of the state (1883). 
Cleveland's administration was characterized by singleness of 
purpose, economy of management, and the exercise of good 
judgment in public affairs. He adhered strictly to the regu- 
lations governing the Civil Service, although under the Consti- 
tution he was not relieved from making a large number of 
appointments. Changes, however, were made gradually, and 
during the first half of his term there were few removals for 
political purposes ; in fact, Cleveland 's attitude in this matter, 
as also his many vetoes, especially of private pension bills, 
cost him the support of the leading men of his party. He 
believed that the pensions were the cause of a vast number of 
frauds against the government, and that many of them were 
an unnecessary expense. 

643. Three Important Laws — The Presidential Succession 
Law, As the Republicans retained control of the Senate during 
Cleveland's administration, no great party legislation was 

505 



506 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

enacted. Important laws passed were : the Presidential Suc- 
cession Act ; a law increasing the size of the navy and placing 
it upon a modern footing; and the Interstate Commerce Act. 

Vice-president Hendricks died shortly after his entrance 
upon office. The event called attention to the fact that the 
Constitution did not amply provide for succession to the presi- 
dency in case both the President and the Vice-president should 
die or be disabled. Accordingly, Congress enacted (1886) a 
law which decided that in case of vacancy the cabinet members 
should succeed to the presidency, if eligible, in order of the 
establishment of their departments. 

In accordance with the Constitution (Article 2, Section 1, 
Clause 5), Congress had already passed a law (1792) providing 
that in case both the President and the Vice-president should 
die or be removed, the President pro tempore of the Senate, 
and in case there was none, the Speaker of the House should 
act as President until the election of a new executive. This 
law was of doubtful constitutionality, and, moreover, did not 
provide for the contingency of filling the vacancy in the presi- 
dential chair in case there should be neither a President pro 
tempore of the Senate nor a Speaker of the House of Repre- 
sentatives. Under the provision of the new law (1886) the 
order of succession is in accordance with the order in which the 
various departments were created ; namely, 
( 1 ) Secretary of State, 1789 ; 
( 2 ) Secretary of War, 1789 ; 
(3) Secretary of the Treasury, 1789; 
( 4 ) Attorney-General, 1789 ; 
( 5 ) Postmaster-General, 1789 ; 
( 6 ) Secretary of the Navy, 1798 ; 
( 7 ) Secretary of the Interior, 1849 ; 
( 8 ) Secretary of Agriculture, 1889 ; 
( 9 ) Secretary of Commerce and Labor, 1903 ; 
(10) Secretary of Labor, 1913 (Labor being then made a 
separate department). 



GROVER CLEVELAND S ADMINISTRATION 



507 



644. Improvement of the Navy. During the twenty years 
succeeding the Civil War nothing had been done to build up 
our navy. The ships in use during the Civil War had either 
been disposed of or had become useless through age. Our com- 
merce needed the protection of a navy w^orthy of a great 
nation. Accordingly, Congress adopted (1883) a plan recom- 
mended by a board appointed for the purpose during the pre- 
vious administration. This plan called for the building of 
four steel cruisers within a period of eight years at an expendi- 
ture of thirty million dollars. It was jjut into immediate 




UNITED -STATES BATTLESHIP " TEXAS " 

execution by an order of Congress. This was the beginning 
of our present splendid navy, which ranks third in tonnage 
among the navies of the world. 

645. The Interstate Commerce Law. The railroads of the 
United States, which were doing much toward developing the 
resources of the country, and which had originally been built 
in short lines, were being rapidly consolidated into larger ones, 
under the control of great corporations. Much of the railroad 
business, in consequence, passed from intrastate to interstate 
commerce. The outcome was the ruin of effective competition 



508 - A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

by discrimination of rates. The rates, on the whole, were not 
too high, but they were not uniform. In many instances low 
freight rates were granted to certain large shippers and to 
distant cities, while higher rates were collected from nearer 
cities and smaller shippers. Naturally, this discrimination 
built up some manufacturers and ruined others. 

To remedy these abuses in railroad transportation, Congress 
enacted (1887) the Interstate Commerce Law, which provided: 
(a)that railroad charges must be just and reasonable; 
(&) that there be no unjust discrimination between persons or 
localities; 

(c) that pooling be considered illegal; 

(d) that there be full publicity of rates; 

(e) that an Interstate Commerce Commission of five persons 

be authorized to investigate and to report concerning 
grievances and violations of the Act. 

646. Repeal of the Tenure of Office Act — Australian Ballot 
System. During this administration the Tenure of Office Act 
which served as a pretext for the impeachment of President 
Johnson was repealed (1887). 

By the old method of conducting elections, political parties 
and candidates for office were allowed to furnish their own 
ballots. Consequently, frauds and abuses were common, and 
this led the public to demand a reform in methods of voting 
in both the state and national elections. 

Accordingly, many of the states adopted the Australian 
ballot method, so called because it was first perfected in 
Australia. In the course of a few years (1888-1892) it found 
favor in nearly all the states. 

647. The Statue of Liberty. An immense statue of bronze, 
representing "Liberty Enlightening the World," in the form 
of a woman holding aloft a torch, was unveiled on Bedloe's 
Island (1886) in the harbor of New York. This statue by the 
famous French sculptor Bartholdi is one hundred and fifty-one 
feet high. It rests on a stone pedestal one hundred and fifty- 



GROVER Cleveland's administration 



509 



"t^-m =ff ^3^E^^ 



five feet high. The statue was erected by subscription in 
France, and was presented to the United States in commem- 
oration of the Declaration of Independence. 

648. Anarchist Movement. The year 1886 became noted for 
its many strikes and riots, the chief centers of which were 
St. Louis and Chicago. The greatest of these occurred in Chi- 
cago, where some forty thou- 
sand men left their employ- 
ment. The strikers marched 
through the streets, and soon 
factories and workshops 
came to a stop. Several hun- 
dred persons, led by a band 
of anarchists, gathered at 
Haymarket Square and 
threatened a serious riot. 
When the police ordered the 
ring-leaders to disperse, some 
one threw a dynamite bomb 
into the crowd, killing seven 
policemen and wounding 
many others. Three of the 
leaders were executed, two 
received sentences of life 
imprisonment, and one es- 
caped sentence by suicide. 

649. Death of Eminent 
Men. This administration 
witnessed the death of an unusually large number of distin- 
guished men, among whom may be mentioned : 

(a) The Venerable Cardinal McCloskey (1885) ; (Archbishop 
Gibbons of Baltimore was chosen by the reigning Pon- 
tiff, Leo XIII, to succeed the deceased cardinal) ; 

(6) ex-President Grant (1885) ; 

(c) General G. B. McClellan (1885) ; 




THE STATUE OF LIBERTY 



510 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

{d) Vice-president Heiulrieks (1885) ; 

(e) General Winfield S. Hancock of Gettysbui-g fame (1885) ; 

(/) Samuel J. Tiki en, prosecutor of the Tweed Ring (1886) ; 

(g) ex-President Chester A. Arthur (1886) ; 

(h) General Sheridan of Shenandoah fame (1888). 

650. The Mills Tariff Bill Is Lost. By this time a large sur- 
plus had accumulated in the Treasury. It was generally 
thought unwise to keep this money from circulation. Presi- 
dent Cleveland believed that the national income should be 
reduced by lowering the tariff. He ascribed much of the dis- 
content in the laboring world to the high tariff. The laboring 
classes, he declared, were not sharing the benefits of the high 
tariff with the great manufacturers. Consequently, he de- 
voted his annual message (1887) chiefly to the recommenda- 
tion of. the desired tariff reduction — a fact which cost him 
re-election at the end of his term. In accordance with the 
President's proposal. Congressman Mills, a Texas Democrat, 
introduced a bill advocating a reduction of the protective 
tariff. The bill passed the House, but was lost in the Senate, 
and thus the tariff question was again left, as in 1884, to 
become a clear issue between the parties in the campaign of 
1888. The Democrats stood for a tariff "for revenue only." 
The Republicans argued that this meant "free trade," and 
they demanded the protection of the American laborers 
against competition with laborers in European countries, 
where the scale of wages was much lower. The products of 
European "pauper labor," they thought, should not be al- 
lowed to sell for less than the products of American labor. 
The Democrats, on the other hand, held that the protective 
tariff caused high prices in the country, which offset the high 
wages, and that the profits arising in the protected industries 
were not fairly divided between the manufacturer and his 
workmen. 

651. The Campaign of 1888. The Democrats in their con- 
vention at St. Louis nominated Grover Cleveland for re-elec- 



GROVER Cleveland's administration 511 

tion on a platform demanding chiefly economy in public ex- 
penses and a tariff "for revenue only." The Republicans at 
Chicago named Benjamin Harrison on a platform strongly 
advocating a tariff "for protection," the reduction of the rev- 
enue by repealing taxes on tobacco, and also spirits used in the 
arts, and free importation of those articles which are not pro- 
duced in this country. The Prohibitionists and the Union 
Labor Party also had candidates in the field. 

This campaign was characterized by an unusual expenditure 
of money by the national committees of both the Republican 
and Democratic parties, and by great processions of the Repub- 
licans (similar to those of the Democrats in 1840). Tippe- 
canoe clubs M^ere formed everywhere — owing to the fact that 
the Republican candida'te, Benjamin Harrison, was the grand- 
son of former President William Harrison, 



CHAPTER XXXVII 

BENJAMIN HAEEISON'S ADMINISTEATION 

REPUBLICAN— 1889-189:5 

652. Harrison and Morton Are Elected; At the election of 
1888, Benjamin Harrison, the candidate of the Republican 
party, was chosen President by a majority of sixty-five elec- 
toral votes over the Democratic nominee, Grover Cleveland. 
Levi P. Morton of New York was chosen Vice-president. At 
this election the Australian ballot was used for the first time 
in the choice of presidential electors. 

Benjamin Harrison (1833-1901) was a native of Ohio. He 
won distinction as a lawyer, rose to the rank of brigadier- 
general in the Civil War, and was a United States Senator 
(1881-1887). As President, he surrounded himself by an able 
Cabinet, and his administration was characterized by general 
progress and a firm defense of American interests in foreign 
affairs. 

653. The Dependent Pension Bill. The triumph of the Re- 
publican party in the presidential election, in which the tariff 
was the main issue, seemed a popular decision in favor of 
raising protective duties still higher. Consequently, the Re- 
publican administration promptly proceeded toward carrying 
out its principal party measure with a free hand. It first pro- 
vided for t\\e reduction of the surplus in the treasury by the 
enactment of the Dependent Pension Bill (1890). This meas- 
ure pensioned not only all Union soldiers who had served 
ninety days and were unable to earn a living, but also their 
widows, children, and dependent parents. The annual amount 
expended for pensions rose from over seventy-two million dol- 
lars (1890) to about one hundred and forty millions (1897). 

512 



BENJAMIN Harrison's administration 513 

654. The McKinley Tariff Bill. The tariff question, which 
had been the issue of several presidential campaigns, was 
again taken up in the Republican Congress of 1890. The 
result was the McKinley Tariff Bill, so named after its author. 
By this act the average duties on imported goods were raised 
from forty-three to about forty-nine per cent — far higher than 
those of any tariff before or during the war. A scheme of 
reciprocity was provided for, by which certain articles were 
allowed free entry into the country from such nations as 
might agree on similar concessions to the United States. The 
McKinley Tariff was in some instances prohibitory; that is, 
it placed so high a tariff on certain goods as to prevent their 
importation. The bill at once caused an advance in the prices 
of manufactures without a corresponding advance in wages, 
and, consequently, became so unpopular that in the congres- 
sional election of that year the Democrats gained control of 
the House by a large majority. 

655. Samoan Difficulty. The long standing policy of our 
government, established under Washington, to have no- entan- 
glements with foreign nations, was violated during an insur- 
rection in the Samoan Islands (1888), a little monarchy gov- 
erned by native princes. The German minister to the island 
sided with the insurgents, while the United States agent 
upheld the established authority of the native princes. The 
result was that serious difficulties arose between the repre- 
sentatives of the two nations. Men-of-war were sent to the 
island to uphold the German cause, while a section of the 
American navy was dispatched to support that of the United 
States. 

While the ships of the two great nations were thus 
lying face to face in a harbor of the South Pacific Ocean, a 
violent hurricane arose (1889) and both the American and 
German war vessels were wrecked with serious loss of life. 
England became interested in the affair and sided with the 
United States. Matters were coming to a serious orisis when. 



514 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

by the Berlin Treaty, the three countries agreed upon the 
maintenance of peace and order in the islands. 

656, The Pan-American Congress. Harrison's administra- 
tion became famous for an international, or Pan-American, 
Congress, composed of sixty-six delegates from the Northern, 
Southern, and Central American Republics. It assembled 
(1889) in Washington in answer to an invitation by the 

United States, and discussed questions of closer business rela- 
tions and better means of communication. Secretary Blaine, 
as president of the conference, exercised great influence. Noth- 
ing very definite resulted, however, except that a Bureau of 
American Republics was established for the prompt collec- 
tion and distribution of commercial information concerning 
the Latin American countries, and a resolution was passed 
recommending that the republics of North, South, and Central 
America settle by arbitration all disputes and difficulties that 
might arise among them. 

657. The Sherman Silver Coinage Act. The continued de- 
cline in the price of silver had led the silver-producing states 
of the West to demand a larger use of this coin. They hoped 
thereby to provide a market for their metal and to raise its 
value to the old standard. Accordingly, the Sherman Act, 
presented by Senator Sherman of Ohio, was passed (1890). 
It provided : 

(a) that the Bland-Allison Bill be repealed; 
(&) that the Secretary of the Treasury purchase four and 
one-half million ounces of silver every month; 

(c) that payment for this silver be made in treasury notes as 

a legal tender, redeemable in coin; 

(d) that the silver bullion be stored in the treasury after July 

1, 1891, and silver certificates be issued to the value of 
the bullion in the treasury. This law was expected to 
keep up the price of silver ; it failed to do so, hoM^ever, 
and the silver question became one of the most impor- 
tant before the country. 



BENJAMIN Harrison's administration 515 

658. The New Orleans Riot. A serious riot occurred in New 
Orleans (1891), in which a mob, taking a number of Italians 
from the city jail, shot some and hanged others. This riot was 
occasioned by the murder of a popular chief of police. Five 
of the leaders in the murderous assault on the chief, though 
tried in court, were acquitted in the face of positive evidence 
against them. The people, believing tlie jury had been bribed 
or intimid-ated by tlie Mafia, an Italian secret society, took 
matters into their own hands. Some of the men taken from 
prison and killed were naturalized citizens; some, however, 
still owed allegiance to Italy, and their country demanded an 
indemnity. Tlie United States at first disavowed all respon- 
sibility, since the matter was an affair entirely under the con- 
trol of the State of Louisiana, but finally agreed to pay 
twenty-five thousand dollars toward the support of the fami- 
lies of those who had been killed. Thus peaceful relations 
with Italy were again restored. 

659. Trouble with Chile. Another quite unexpected and 
complicated affair occurred in Chile (1891). On the occasion 
of a civil war in that country, our minister failed to preserve 
neutrality. An angered Chilean mob attacked a number of 
American sailors, killing two and wounding eighteen. The 
United States sternly demanded satisfaction, whereupon Chile, 
disavowing the act, promptly offered and paid an indemnity of 
seventy-five thousand dollars for the families of the murdered 
and wounded. 

In the negotiations with Italy and Chile, Blaine, the able 
Secretary of State, showed great skill and prudence. 

660. The International Copyright Law. Europeans had long 
expressed dissatisfaction because of the want of an American 
law protecting their copyrights in our country. Congress en- 
acted (1891) an international copyright law, which gave copy- 
right protection to authors of such nations as would extend 
the like privilege to American authors. Before the existence 
of this law, any foreign literary production could be published 



516 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

and sold in this country without the payment of a royalty to 
the author. It is fair to say, however, that, for the most part, 
a sense of honor induced those who made use of the opportu- 
nity to pay the foreign author a reasonable compensation. 

661. The Seal Fishery Question. After the purchase of 
Alaska (1867) the United States assumed entire control of the 
seal fisheries in Bering Sea. England, however, claimed that 
the jurisdiction of the United States did not extend beyond a 
three-mile limit and encouraged the Canadians in sealing out- 
side of that boundary. Matters were brought to a crisis when 
our cruisers began to attack and confiscate (1886) the Cana- 
dian seal vessels. The trouble was, however, adjusted by a 
board of arbitrators, who met at Paris (1893). This board 




THE OPENIX<i OF OKLAHOMA 



decided that the United States had no jurisdiction over the 
seal fisheries beyond the three-mile limit, but that both nations 
might join in protecting the seals in the open water to pre- 
vent their extermination. This adjustment of the difficulty 
concerning seal fisheries without appeal to arms was anotlun- 
of the many trivimphs of arbitration. 

662. Oklahoma Territory Opened — Six New States Admitted. 
Shortly after Harrison's inauguration, the United States pur- 
chased Oklahoma, which then formed a part of Indian Terri- 
tory, from the Creek and Seminole Indians. In order to 
prevent unlawful speculation, the President issued a proclama- 
tion forbidding entrance into the territory before noon of 
April 12, 1889. As the soil and climate of the new territory 
were particularly desirable, about fifty thousand people called 



BENjAMi:^" Harrison's administration 517 

''boomers" gathered on the border, and at the first blast of 
the bugle rushed into the "promised land." Then began the 
scramble for selecting lands from the two million acres which 
were thrown open to settlement that eventful day. Cities and 
towns and a new commonwealth were created in a wilderness 
within twenty-four hours. 

Four states entered the Union in 1899 — North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Montana, and Washington. Two entered in 1890 — 
Idaho and Wyoming. 

663. The Johnstown Flood. The city of Johnstown and a 
nuiidx'r of villages located on the Conemaugh River in western 
Pennsylvania suffered an appalling disaster May 1, 1889. A 
dam in the river gave way and the flood swept villages and 
towns before it. The greater part of Johnstown was destroyed. 
Thousands of lives and millions of dollars' worth of property 
were lost. Again, as in similar instances, the generosity of the 
American people came to the aid of the stricken inhabitants, 

664. Two Centennials. The hundredth anniversary of the 
beginning of our government under the Constitution and the 
inauguration of Washington was commemorated by a grand 
three days' celebration in New York City (April, 1889). Char- 
acteristic features of the festivities were naval and military 
reviews, and a grand parade exhibiting all the industries and 
the trades of the American metropolis. Commemorative exer- 
cises were held at the Sub-Treasury Building on Wall Street, 
which occupies the site of Old Federal Hall where Washington 
took the presidential oath. At the close of the exercises, the 
Most Reverend Archbishop Corrigan of New York gave his 
blessing to the assembled multitudes. 

In November of the Constitutional Centennial (1889), the 
Catholic Church of America also celebrated the first centenary 
auniversary of the establishment of its hierarchy. 

665. The First Catholic Lay Congress. The celebration of 
the centennials of the inauguration of Washington as the first 
President of the nation, and the installment of the Very Rev- 



518 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

erend Father Carroll as first Bishop of the United States, were 
marked also by the meeting of the first Catholic Lay Congress 
in the United States. It was composed of fifteen hundred dele- 
gates from the several dioceses, including men of various 
nationalities, also Indians and negroes — all of whom joined in 
perfect harmony for the common purposes of the occasion 
which were : increased activity on the part of the laity in 
aid of the clergy; a declaration of views on the important 
Catholic questions of the hour ; and the assistance of the poor, 

666. Indian Troubles — Strikes. Trouble with the Sioux In- 
dians again broke out (1890) in Dakota. Sitting Bull, having 
once more excited his tribe to hostility, engaged in a bloody 
battle with the United States troops under General Miles at 
Wounded Knee, South Dakota. About two hundred Indians 
were killed, among whom Avere Sitting Bull, his son. Crow 
Foot, and six other famous warriors. The Indians, seeing the 
hopelessness of continuing the strife, finally surrendered. 

The workmen of the Carnegie Steel Works at Homestead, 
near Pittsburg, struck (1892) for higher wages. Scenes of 
violence occurred, and a number of persons were killed. A 
military force sent by the government of Pennsylvania finally 
occupied the city and restored order. 

667. The Campaign of 1892. In the campaign of 1892, Har- 
rison was again the nominee of the Republican party, and 
Cleveland the choice of the Democrats. Their platforms were 
much the same as in 1888. The People's party, an outgrowth 
of the Greenback party, named James B. Weaver of Iowa as 
its candidate on a platform demanding among other things, 
the free coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen to one, 
an income tax from persons having an income exceeding four 
thousand dollars per year, the control of railroads, telegraphs, 
and similar public service corporations by the government, a 
national currency to be loaned to the people at two per cent 
on the security of certain farm products, and the issue of 
money by the government only, and not by the banks. 



CHAPTER XXXVIII 

GROVEE CLEVELAND'S SECOND ADMINISTRATION 
DEMOCRAT— 1S93-1S97 

668. Cleveland and Stevenson Are Elected. The result of 
the election of 1892 was a sweeping victory for the Democratic 
party, which elected both the President and Congress. Grover 
Cleveland was chosen by a majority of one hundred and thirty- 
two electoral votes over Benjamin Harrison, and a plurality 
of one hundred and ten votes over Harrison and Weaver. 
Adlai E. Stevenson was chosen Vice-president. 

669. The Panic of 1893. Cleveland, as we have noted, began 
his administration with a Democratic majority in both houses 
of Congress — soiiiething unheard of since the outbreak of the 
war. The country, too, was enjoying unusual prosperity. But 
the pension, tariff, and monetary legislation of the previous 
presidency had greatly disturbed the financial world. Scarcely 
had the Democratic administration begun its career, when a 
great currency famine and, subsequently, a disastrous panic 
swept over the country. Hundreds of banks failed ; business 
houses suspended work ; thousands of laborers were thrown 
out of employment ; great distress became apparent among the 
poorer classes ; strikes were common, and the number of va- 
grants increased enormously. 

The reasons for the panic of 1893 may be found in the fol- 
lowing facts : 

(a) the manufacturers of the country feared that Democratic 
supremacy would decrease or do away with the protec- 
tive tariff. Such a turn of affairs, they argued, would 
flood our markets with foreign articles, greatly reduce 
prices, and, consequently, occasion disaster to those in 
519 



520 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

possession of a large stock of home manufactures. 
Therefore they suspended work in their shops as soon 
as it became evident that the Democrats would win the 
election. Thus thousands of workmen were left with- 
out means of support and the business of the country- 
was prostrate ; 
(&) the greenbacks in circulation amounted to a very large 
sum, and the monthly quantity of bullion, which the 
treasurer was directed to buy, was to be paid for with 
new notes "exchangeable for coin." Now, "coin" 
meant gold. Thus, the notes in circulation were redeem- 
able in gold to an enormous amount (five hundred mil- 
lion dollars in 1893). This sum was constantly being 
increased by the provisions of the Sherman Act, and 
naturally the people began to doubt the ability of the 
government to redeem the notes in gold. This serious 
condition of financial affairs finally brought the panic ; 
(c) silver had fallen in twenty years (1873-1893) from one 
dollar and thirty cents to about eighty cents an ounce. 
This frightened American as well as European deposit- 
ors and creditors, who feared that the government, not 
having enough gold in readiness, might decide to re- 
deem its notes in silver, instead of gold. Hence they 
started "runs" on the banks to redeem their bonds 
and notes in gold before the government should offer 
pay for them in less valuable coin. Then came the 
crash : banks, being unable to meet the demands, failed ; 
business men, finding it impossible to borrow money, 
had to suspend work, which meant the discharge of 
laborers and consequent hard times. 
670. The Repeal of the Sherman Act. In order to stop the 
further purchase of silver bullion and consequent issues of 
silver certificates, which continued to drain the gold in the 
treasury, Cleveland summoned a special session of Congress 
and advised the repeal of the Sherman Act. Shortly after, 



GROVER Cleveland's second administration 521 

a bill passed the House, and also the Senate, after a long and 
exciting opposition (November, 1893). Thus the purchase of 
silver was stopped, but the money question was not settled, 
and became the main issue of the campaign of 1896. Nor did 
the repeal of the Sherman Act have immediate effects upon 
the distressing conditions of the laboring world; for it was 
estimated that, at the beginning of winter, there were still 
hundreds of thousands of unemployed. Furthermore, the de- 
cline in the value of silver closed the silver mines of the West, 
and thus threw thousands of miners out of employment. 

671. The Wilson Tariff Act. The tariff plank formed the 
principal dift'erence between tlie Republican and Democratic 
platforms : the Republicans advocated a high protective tariff, 
the Democrats a tariff for revenue only. The Democrats hav- 
ing won the election on the tariff issue, set about revising the 
tariff by passing the Wilson Bill (1893), presented by Repre- 
sentative Wilson. The Wilson Tariff Act differed from the 
McKinley Bill chiefly in the degree of protection it called for. 
The Wilson Tariff Act lowered the revenue rate of the Mc- 
Kinley Act from about fifty per cent to nearly thirty-seven 
per cent, and placed many articles on the free list. 

The Democratic reduction of the tariff was imprudently 
made at the wrong juncture of affairs. As it was, the income 
of the government was insufficient to cover its current ex- 
penses, and much of the gold in the national treasury passed 
into foreign hands in payment of bonds offered for redemp- 
tion ; in other words, foreigners withdrew the money which 
they had invested in the United States. Meanwhile, Ameri- 
cans throughout the country began to hoard the gold that 
came into their possession. Hence, to meet demands, the gov- 
ernment was obliged to issue new bonds, that is, borrow 
money, and before the close of Cleveland's presidency the 
national debt had been increased about two hundred and fifty 
million dollars. Under such conditions the Wilson Tariff M-as 
naturally unpopular. The Democrats did not succeed in pass- 



522 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



ing another party measure and the triumph of the Republicans 
seemed assured in the next election. 

672. The Hawaiian Revolution. Even before the expiration 
of Harrison's administration the natives of Hawaii, instigated 
by American seamen, but especially by our minister to the 
islands, rose in rebellion against their queen, Liliuokalani. She 
was deposed (1893), and a provisional government consisting 
largely of Americans was organized and application was made 
to the United States for annexation. This action was strongly 
opposed in the Senate on the plea that the people of Hawaii 

had not been fidly 
f^-^^'v ' '^^^>' r^Si&^^M ^^^cl fairly consulted 

The matter was still 
pending when Cleve- 
land succeeded to the 
presidency. C 1 e v e- 
land investigated the 
state of affairs, and, 
finding that the 
Americans had again 
violated Washing- 
ton 's polic}^ by tak- 
ing sides in the re- 
bellion, and that they 
had unfairly treated 
a weak power, opposed the annexation of the islands. His at- 
tempt, however, to restore the queen to power failed. The 
independent republic which the Hawaiians organized (1894) 
continued until the United States (1898) finally took control 
of Hawaii. The islands were organized into the Territory 
of Hawaii in 1900. Cleveland's Hawaiian policy called forth 
some stinging criticisms. It is now, however, generally ad- 
mitted that his attitude in the affair Avas admirable. 

Catholicity has made considerable progress in Hawaii. There 
are many churches and schools in charge of Religious. Besides 




GROUNDS OF OAHU COLLEGE, HONOLULU, HAWAII 



WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 523 

the work of education, Catholic charity has also taken upon 
itself the care of the lepers, for whom the Hawaiian govern- 
ment set apart the island of Molokai. Here lal)ored the 
heroic and self-sacrificing Father Damien, the apostle of the 
lepers, and here still labor his devoted successors. 

673. The Monroe Doctrine and Venezuela. Cleveland soon 
had an opportunity to show the critics of his Hawaiian policy 
that he was capable of determined action. A boundary dis- 
pute of long standing between Venezuela and British Guiana 
induced the President to apply the Monroe Doctrine. Great 
Britain was apparently trying to secure territory from Venez- 
uela not rightfully belonging to her and refused both the 
appeal of Venezuela and the advice of the United States to 
settle affairs by arbitration. For a while war seemed immi- 
nent. Cleveland in a special message to Congress declared 
that the Monroe Doctrine must be respected and that the 
United States was bound to resist in every possible manner 
the encroachments of Great Britain on Venezuela. Congress 
forgot its party differences and unanimously supported the 
President. England finally agreed to arbitration and matters 
were peaceably adjusted. Cleveland's quick move and unfal- 
tering position at once won for him great popular favor. 

674. Other Measures of Cleveland's Administration. Con- 
gress repealed (1894) the Force Bill, which, passed in 1870, 
had been the cause of much bitter feeling and strife in the 
South. 

Cleveland extended the Civil Service Law by placing a great 
many more Federal officials under the examination system 
provided for by the Civil Service Keform Act of 1892. 

Utah, though possessing, a population of two hundred and 
seven thousand (1890), had been refused admission to the 
Union as a state because of the existence of polygamy among 
the Mormons in that territory. It was, however, finally ad- 
mitted (1896) as the forty-fifth state, after the adoption of 
a state constitution prohibiting polygamy. 



524 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Eelatioiis between the United States and Spain were some- 
what strained during Cleveland's administration because of 
affairs in Cuba. Successive governors of this island were un- 
able to suppress an insurrection, which was secretly assisted 
by American money and by Cuban filibustering expeditions 
equipped in American harbors. 

675. World's Columbian Exposition. Under Cleveland's sec- 
ond administration, the World's Columbian Exposition was 
held (1893) in Chicago. It commemorated the four hundredth 
anniversary of the discovery of America by Columbus. This 
international exposition far surpassed all previous ones of 
the kind in completeness and magnificence. The chief object 
of this fair, which was to give evidence of the great progress 
in civilization during the past four centuries, was most suc- 
cessfully accomplished. It not only gave proofs of the growth 
of our people in the industrial lines, but also showed that the 
Americans might justly be proud of their wonderful intellec- 
tual advancement. All the states and the leading foreign 
nations were represented by special palaces in the "White 
City," as the group of exposition buildings was called. 

676. Strikes — Riots — Boycotts. Great panics lead to strikes 
and vagrancy. Such was the case after the panic of 1893. A 
certain horse-dealer named Coxey gathered a so-called "indus- 
trial army," composed of workingmen, tramps, criminals, and 
the unemployed of all classes. This "army" began its march 
from Ohio to Washington to demand relief from the govern- 
ment. Similar "armies" set out from Texas and th« Pacific 
states. They managed to reach the national capital, where 
they achieved nothing, and soon disbanded. 

Several thousand workmen employed by the Pullman Car 
Company, at Pullman, near Chicago, struck for higher wages, 
and boycotts occurred on more than twenty railroads running 
out of Chicago. The employees of these railroads struck in 
order to prevent the use of Pullman cars until the company 
should raise the wages of their laborers. Business was sus- 



GROVER Cleveland's second administration 525 

pended in Chicago, and travel became dangerous. Meat and 
other provisions could not be transported. Trade and indus- 
try were thrown into confusion and much railroad property 
destroyed. The money losses amounted to not less than seven 
million dollars. A force combined of United States troops 
and state militia finally restored order after a number of 
weeks. 

677. The Bryan-McKinley Campaign. The campaign of 1896, 
known as the "silver campaign," or the "battle of the two 
standards," gold and silver, was one of the most exciting and 
memorable campaigns in our recent history. It was generally 
believed that the hard times during Cleveland's administra- 
tion were caused chiefly by the repeal of the Sherman Act, and 
the subsequent fall in the price of silver, as well as by the low 
average of the protective tariff provided for by the "Wilson 
Act. Consequently, when the time of election drew near, it 
became evident that the main issues of the campaign would 
be the tariff and silver coinage. 

The Republican national convention met at St. Louis and 
nominated William McKinley of Ohio on a platform which 
declared for protection and reciprocity, and rejected the free 
coinage of silver, except by international agreement. The 
Democrats met at Chicago and named William Jennings Bryan 
of Nebraska on a platform strongly demanding an unlimited 
coinage of silver and gold at a ratio of sixteen to one. The 
Populists, or People's party, in their convention at St. Louis 
accepted the presidential nominee of the Democrats. The 
"gold" Democrats, under the name of National Democrats, 
met at Indianapolis and nominated J. M. Palmer of Illinois, 
on a platform declaring for a single gold standard. 



CHAPTER XXXIX 



WILLIAM MCKINLEY'S ADMINISTEATION 



REPUBLICAN— 1S97-1901 

678. McKinley and Hobart Are Elected. At the election of 
1896, William McKinley was elected by a majority of ninety- 
five electoral votes over 
William J. Bryan. Gar- 
ret A. Hobart was 
chosen Vice-president. 

William McKinley 
(1843-1901) was a na- 
tive of Ohio. In the 
Civil War he rose to the 
rank of major; later he 
served as congressman 
from his state. Well 
educated, gentle, and 
dignified of character, 
he endeared himself to 
the people by his blame- 
less private life, rare 
tact, and higlj. executive 
ability. As a politician 
he was keen and far- 
sighted and knew how 
to win the esteem and 
respect of his opponents. His presidential administration, 
though successful on the whole, was overshadowed by issues 
resulting from the Spanisli War and the acquisition of out- 
lying possessions. 

.52G 




WILLIAM McKINLEY 



WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 527 

679. The Dingley Tariff. The Wilson Tariff Act did not 
secure sufficient revenue to meet the needs of the government ; 
hence, a few days after his inauguration, President McKinh^y 
called an extra session of Congress to consider the revision of 
the tariff. As a result, the Dingley Tariff Bill, presented by 
Representative Dingley, was finally passed after much oppo- 
sition from the Senate (1897). This act, in accordance with 
the policy of the party in power, was thoroughly protective, 
and raised the duties to the highest average known in our 
history (to over fifty per cent). Free trade on articles not 
manufactured in our country was again provided for. 

680. The Monetary Commission. In order to meet the de- 
mand of the monetary plank in the Republican platform of the 
campaign, the President appointed a monetary commission 
composed of three members, with Senator Wolcott of Colorado 
as chairman, to confer and if possible to reach an agreement 
with other countries concerning an international basis for the 
coinage of gold and silver. As England refused to enter into 
any negotiations, and as India had already suspended silver 
coinage, the commission did not attain the desired purpose. 
If it had succeeded, current coin would have had uniform 
value in the countries included in the international union. 

681. The Gold Standard Act. The Republicans, in their 
platform of 1896, favored the maintenance of a "gold stand- 
ard," but owing to the fact that the majority in the Senate 
was composed of Democrats and silver Republicans, it was 
difficult for the party to effect any monetary reform. An act 
was, however, finally passed (1900) which definitely adopted 
the "gold standard;" made provisions for the increase of the 
gold reserve fund to one hundred and fifty million dollars; 
provided for the establishment of national banks in smaller 
towns and villages, and authorized the Secretary of the Treas- 
ury to issue long-time two per cent bonds, and with the income 
of these to pay the shorter time three, four, and five per cent 
bonds. 



528 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The "gold standard bill" provides that the dollar contain- 
ing twenty-five and eight-tenths grains of gold, nine-tenths 
pure, shall be the standard unit of value, and that all forms 
of money issued or coined by the United States shall be main- 
tained at a parity of value with this standard. It imposes on 
the Secretary of the Treasury the duty of maintaining this 
parity. 

The two per cent refunding measure proved to be very suc- 
cessful. The significance of this measure may be seen from 
the fact that during its operation, the bonds of the United 
States bore lower interest than those of any other country; 
hence, for the first time in the history of the United States 
its credit was the best in the world. 

THE SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR 

682. The United States' Interest In Cuba. The problems 
of tariff revision and monetary reform were serious questions, 
but a grave international complication soon absorbed much 
of the thought and energy of the nation. Under the Queen- 
Mother Christina, regent for Alphonso XIII, Spain's difficul- 
ties with the United States about Cuba finally resulted in the 
Spanish-American "War in 1898. 

Cuba and Porto Rico were the only possessions left to Spain 
in the New World after the loss of her colonies on the main- 
land of the American continent. From the time that Florida 
became a part of the United States, our government had taken 
a deep interest in Cuba, as it feared that it might pass from 
Spain to more aggressive hands, especially England or France. 
Cuba had, furthermore, previous to the Civil War, been much 
coveted by the southern slave power. President Polk (1848) 
offered Spain one hundred million dollars for Cuba, but that 
nation promptly rejected the offer. 

683. Conditions in Cuba. Cuba, taken from Spain by the 
Englisli (1762), was, by the Treatj^ of Paris, returned to its 
original owner in exchange for Florida. From this time the 



WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 529 

progress of the island was rapid under the reforms instituted 
by Luis Las Casas, the Spanish captain-generaL During the 
nineteenth century, the Cubans were governed by a succession 
of captains-general, some of whom were honorable in their ad- 
ministrations, others of whom seemed to regard the office solely 
as a means of acquiring a fortune. A deadly hatred grew up 
between the Cubans and the Spaniards, which was caused by 
oppressive measures. These deprived the native Cubans of 
political and civil liberty, excluded them from public office, 
and burdened them with taxation. This resulted in repeated 
uprisings and a rebellion which, secretly supported in America, 
devastated Cuba for a period of ten years (1868-1878), Spain 
then promised the Cubans representation in the legislature, 
together with other needed reforms. Many of her promises 
were, however, not kept and a new revolt broke out (1895). 
Three successive governors-general, Campos, Weyler, and 
Blanco, were unable to suppress the insurrection, which was 
again secretly supported by American money and Cuban fili- 
bustering expeditions equipped in American harbors. 

The methods of the Spanish authorities in putting down the 
rebellion were barbarous and resulted in widespread desola- 
tion. The non-combatants of the rural population that sym- 
pathized with the insurgents were compelled to leave their 
homes and move to the nearest towns, where thousands died 
of starvation and disease. Congress voted that supplies be for- 
warded to the suffering Cubans, and members of the Red Cross 
Society, led by Clara Barton, went to Cuba to relieve distress. 

684. Self-Government in Cuba. The sympathy of the United 
States was naturally Avith the Cubans : many Americans re- 
sided in Cuba; American capital was invested there, and our 
commerce with the island amounted to several million dollars 
a year. Hence, President McKinley undertook by diplomacy 
to bring Spain and the Cubans to agree upon terms of peace. 

685. The Explosion of the Maine. The United States gov- 
ernment, in fact, the entire American people, were watching 



580 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Cuban affairs with intense interest, when, on the night of Feb- 
ruary 15, 1898, a terrific explosion destroyed the United States 
battleship Maine in Havana harbor. Two officers and two hun- 
dred and sixty-six sailors went down with the vessel. Captain 
Sigsbee of the Maine, in his official dispatch to Secretary of 
the Navy Long, advised that public opinion be suspended. A 
naval court of inquiry, appointed by the President, finally 
reported that the disaster was in no way due to fault or neg- 
ligence on the part of the officers or members of the crew 
of the Maine, and that there was no evidence to suggest that 
the Spanish government or any of her officials were concerned 
in the matter. The Spanish authorities rendered every kindly 
service within their power to Captain Sigsbee and the surviv- 
ors. Sensationalists at once made use of the event to inflame 
the minds of the people against Spain, and the probability of 
peace or war between this country and the United States was 
at once openly discussed. 

In 1911 the Maine was raised at great expense for the pur- 
pose of ascertaining whether it was destroyed by a torpedo 
mine from without or by an explosion from within. Upon 
investigation, an official statement was made which substan- 
tially agreed with that of Captain Sigsbee, made some weeks 
after the disaster (1898), namely, that the Maine was first 
blown up from without, although the explosion of her own 
magazines a moment later caused her complete destruction. 
Notwithstanding the official but interested report of the gov- 
ernment, an opinion, supported by weighty marine authority, 
is still common that the explosion was caused by an over- 
heated magazine beneath the decks of the Maine, 

686. Summary of Causes — Declaration of War. The Span- 
ish-American War was of short duration (April 25, 1898-De- 
cember 10, 1898). Its causes may be briefly summed up as 
follows : 

Remote — The long existing desire in the United States that 
Spanish rule in Cuba be ended. The opportunity to bring this 



WUjIJAM McKINI.EY's ADMINISTRATK^N 531 

about was seen in tlie uprisings, rebellions, and bardships 
oecasioned by tbe ai'bitrary rule of the Spanisli eaptains- 
general. 

Immediate — A series of resolutions passed by both Houses 
of Congress (April 19, anniversary of Lexington and Concord) 
which declared : that the Cubans ought to be free and inde- 
pendent: that Spain must withdraw her troops from the island, 
and that tbe President be authorized to use the army and navy 
of the United States to compel Spain to relinquish her author- 
ity over Cuba. By another clause of the resolution, the United 
States promised to leave the government of the island to its 
people after its independence was achieved. 

Spain was given five days to consider the resolutions. She 
replied by recalling her minister at Washington and dismiss- 
ing the American minister from Madrid. As this action was 
equivalent to a declaration of war, Congress declared that war 
existed (April 25, 1898). The President called for two hun- 
dred thousand volunteers. Many times that number offered 
their services. Congress promptly appropriated fifty million 
dollars toward carrying on the war. The forts along the 
Atlantic were strengthened and protected by mines. A part 
of the American fleet under acting Rear Admiral Sampson 
was sent to blockade Havana ; another part, under Commodore 
Winfield Scott Schley, was organized into a "flying squadron" 
to search for a Spanish fleet in command of Admiral Cervera, 
which was reported to have left the Cape Verde Islands. 

687. Cervera 's Fleet in Santiago Harbor. No one knew 
whether Cervera was bound for Cuba or whether he intended 
to surprise the cities on our eastern coast. Commodore Schley 
finally discovered the fleet in Santiago harbor, whither it had 
taken refuge to procure coal and other supplies. This harbor, 
known as "Cloverleaf Bay," opens through a narrow channel 
into the ocean. It was strongly fortified and well laid with 
mines, and consequently it would have been unwise for an 
attacking fleet to enter it. Sampson and Schley disposed all 



532 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

their available vessels about tlie entrance of Santiago harbor 
and exercised a vigilant watch over Cervera's fleet. 

688. Hobson's Exploit. As it was feared that Cervera's 
fleet might by some means escape in spite of the vigilance of 
Sampson and Schley, Ensign Richmond Hobson volunteered to 
close the harbor by sinking the coaling vessel Merrimac in the 
entrance to the harbor. With six brave companions, in the 
face of a terrific fire from the Spanish batteries, he succeeded 
in steaming the collier to a narrow part of the channel, where 
he sunk it. The vessel, however, did not block the entrance. 
Hobson and his men, who had thrown themselves into the 
water, were captured by Cervera, but were kindly treated by 
him in consideration of their bravery. 

689. The Battle of Manila. Before a decisive engagement 
occurred at Cuba, the most far-reaching event of the war took 
place in the Philippine Islands. Commodore George Dewey, 
commanding an American fleet which was then at anchor in 
Hong-Kong harbor, was ordered to attack the Spanish fie 't 
in the Philippines. He set sail immediately, and Sunday 
morning, May 1, entered Manila Bay, the chief harbor of the 
islands. After a masterly attack, he destroyed the enemy's 
fleet of eleven vessels. The Spanish sustained a heavy loss 
of life, while the American fleet lost neither in life nor ships. 
Dewey proceeded to blockade the city of Manila and then 
awaited the arrival of General Merritt with twenty thousand 
troops from San Francisco. A few weeks later (August 13) 
Manila and the islands surrendered. President McKinley ap- 
pointed Dewey rear admiral and later he was given the high- 
est rank in the navy — that of admiral — while Commodores 
Sampson and Schley were made rear admirals. 

690. The Capture of Santiago — Destruction of Cervera's 
Fleet. Meantime, General W. R. Shafter with an array of 
eighteeii thousand men had landed at a point a few miles dis- 
tant from Santiago, to cooperate with Captain Sampson in the 
capture of the city. The outer line of defense at El Caney and 



WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 533 

San Juan was taken by assault (July 1), and the Spanish 
troops driven into Santiago, which city was then practically 
at the mercy of the American army. Cervera sought safety 
by making a wild dash out of the harbor on the morn- 
ing of July 2. The Americans gave chase with deadly fire. 
In a wild running fight every vessel of the Spanish fleet 
was either captured or sunk. The American vessels suffered 
little damage. Some six hundred Spaniards were killed or 
wounded and one thousand taken prisoners, while the Ameri- 
cans had but one man killed and three wounded. The presence 
of General Shaffer's army before the city of Santiago and 
the loss of Cervera 's fleet convinced the Spanish authorities 
of the uselessness of further resistance, and a few days later 
the Spanish commander, Toral, surrendered (July 14). 

General Shaffer's force was composed chiefly of regular 
soldiers, but included as volunteers a regiment of "Eough 
Riders" known as "The First Regiment of United States Vol- 
unteer Cavalry," who fought on foot. Leonard Wood was 
appointed colonel, and Theodore Roosevelt, who resigned his 
position as Assistant Secretary of the Navy for the purpose, 
lieutenant colonel. 

691. Miles in Porto Rico — Treaty of Peace. Immediately 
after the destruction of Cervera 's fleet. General Nelson A. 
Miles, then at the head of the army of the United States, 
proceeded to Porto Rico and took possession of several towns 
with little difficulty. Hostilities were stopped suddenly, how- 
ever (August 11, 1898), by news from Washington that a 
treaty of peace had been drawn up and signed by the two 
nations. By the treaty Spain gave up all claim to Cuba, 
which she had held for four hundred years, and ceded to the 
United States Porto Rico, the island of Guam, and the Philip- 
pine Archipelago, for the sum of twenty million dollars. 

692. Results of the War — Reconstruction of Cuba and Porto 
Rico. The Spanish-American war cost the United States one 
hundred and thirty million dollars and the loss of two hundred 



534 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



and ninety -five men killed in battle, and it ended Spanish rule 
in the Western Hemisphere. 

The United States occupied the island of Cuba, January 1, 
1899, and appointed a military governor, pending the organ- 
ization of a native government. This was established when 
Don Tomas Estrada Palma was inaugurated as president 
(May 20, 1902). With this event Cuba became a republic 
under the protection of the United States, which retained the 
right of a general supervision of the foreign affairs of the 




THATCHED HUTS IN POKTO RICO 



island. Porto Rico, as one of the spoils of the war, was 
organized as a United States dependency under a territorial 
form of government (May, 1900). 

With the American occupation of Cuba, annual payments 
by the government to the Church for religious purposes ceased. 
The long discussion and investigation which ensued because of 
this ended in an adjustment, by a judicial commission (1902), 
in favor of the claims of the Church. 

693. War Contiimes in the Philippines — Outcome. At. the 
time of American occupancy of the Philippines, the natives 
of the islands, under the leadership of Emilio Aguinaldo, were 



WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 535 

in revolt against Spain, and had set up a revolutionary govern- 
ment. They welcomed and aided the American troops, but 
upon finding that independence was denied them at the close 
of the war they took up arms against the Americans. Several 
years of bush or guerrilla fighting followed. A great many 
natives were killed, and United States troops finally occupied 
nearly all of the island of Luzon ; Aguinaldo was captured 
and soon after swore allegiance to the United States. With 
this event hostilities ceased, and President McKinley (Jul}^ 4, 
1899) declared by proclamation the restoration of peace in the 
Philippines and extended a general amnesty to the former 
insurgents. William Howard Taft was then appointed governor 
of the islands, and during his term of office an honest and stable 
government was established. 

In the Philippines there had been the strictest union of 
Church and State for more than three centuries, which fact 
naturally brought difficulties under the new American govern- 
ment. The most important problem was that of the religious 
orders and their relations to the native races. The cry for 
their banishment and spoliation could not be listened to, since 
there were some five million Catholics dependent on their 
ministrations. The record of the friars was a glorious one, 
and to their rule the natives of the island owed their excep- 
tional prosperity; for these friars had transformed them from 
a barbarous Malay race into Christian people, and from the 
lowest grade of savagery had advanced them to a high form 
of civili;^tion. 

At the beginning of the American occupation of the islands, 
officers of the United States, with a lew praiseworthy excep- 
tions, looked on with indifference, or even approval, while 
numerous churches were desecrated and robbed ; while the 
natives were encouraged not to submit to ecclesiastical author- 
ity; while the press attacked the Church and the Religious. 
Hence, to come to some satisfactory understanding, President 
Roosevelt finally entrusted Governor Taft of the Philippines 



536 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

with a mission to the Vatican. In the Eternal City negotia- 
tions were entered into between Governor Taft and a com- 
mission of five Cardinals, and a mutual understanding was 
reached between the Vatican and the American government 
regarding the management of Philippine affairs. 

694. International Peace Conference. In response to an 
invitation by the Russian Czar to an international conference, 
all the principal nations of the world sent (1899) prominent 
delegates to The Hague, in Holland. The paramount object 
of this congress was the consideration and adoption of some 
method whereby international differences might be settled by 
arbitration rather than by war. The crowning act of the 
convention was the establishment of an International Court of 
Arbitration at The Hague, in which fifteen of the world's 
foremost nations are represented. 

695. The Settlement of the Samoan Trouble— Tutuila. The 
United States, Great Britain, and Germany assumed (1889) 
the rule of the Samoan Islands by joint agreement. This joint 
occupation occasioned, however, continual insurrections 
against the native rulers and many vexatious differences be- 
tween the jointly ruling countries; but matters were adjusted 
by a final treaty (1899), according to which Great Britain 
relinquished her interests in the Samoan group and the islands 
were divided between Germany and the United States. Four 
of them, including Tutuila, the largest of the group, and 
Pango Pango, which had the best harbor in the Pacific, were 
allotted to the United States. The islands of Christmas, 
Baker, Midway, Wake, and Howland, lying in the Pacific, and 
never claimed by any power, were also annexed to the United 
States. These islands, especially Tutuila, serve the United 
States as convenient coaling, naval, and cable stations. With- 
out a coaling station in the Pacific the United States would be 
weak in a war with Asiatic powers. Her battleships would use 
up all the coal they could carry in order to cross the ocean, 
and since the warships of a nation at war are not allowed to 



WILLIAM Mckinley's administration 537 

take on coal at neutral ports, they would be compelled to lie 
at anchor, inactive, till the close of the war. 

696. "Open Door" with China— The Boxer Uprising. In 1900 
the United States, through Secretary Hay, secured the so-called 
"open door" for our trade with China, by which the leading 
European powers and Japan agreed to grant free trade to all 
the world in the Chinese ports under their control. The Chinese 
Empire (a republic since 1912) had for centuries excluded from 
its domain all foreign influence and commercial relations. The 
leading nations of Europe, notwithstanding, secured from 
China, under one or another pretext, portions of her territory, 
and it was not improbable that the Chinese Empire would 
finally be partitioned among contending powers, which could 
at will place heavy duties on all goods entering the ports of 
China under their control. This would have meant the shut- 
ting out of American goods from Chinese ports. 

The aggression of the western nations, under the lead of 
Germany, whose purpose was to seize and partition the coast 
line of China, aroused a feeling of deep resentment among the 
Chinese. The growing feeling of the Chinese that they had no 
rights that foreign nations felt bound to respect resulted in 
the Boxer uprising (1900), which horrified the whole civilized 
world. The foreign legations in Pekin were besieged, and the 
Chancellor of the Japanese embassy and Baron von Kettler, 
the German minister, were slain. Thousands of Christians 
were massacred. Cathedrals, churches, Chinese palaces, libra- 
ries, and temples in different parts of the city were reduced 
to ashes. The entire foreign quarter had to trust for its 
defense to eighteen officers and three hundred and eighty-nine 
men of eight nationalities, re-enforced by a number of volun- 
teers and native Christians. In brief, the legations, stormed 
by the fury of the Boxers, faced inevitable destruction unless 
speedily relieved. Troops sent to the scene by Great Britain, 
France, Russia, the United States, and Japan, numbering, all 
told, twelve thousand men, formed themselves into an army 



538 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

of relief, with Count von Waldersee, of the German detach- 
ment, as commander. After ten days of heavy fighting, the 
international army stormed Tientsin, and, fighting its way to 
Pekin, relieved the legations and the Catholic Cathedral, in 
which between two and three thousand persons — priests, nuns, 
and fugitive Christians — had taken refuge. The Empress 
Dowager and the court fled from the capital, which was left 
in ruins. After long and complicated negotiations, difficulties 
with China were finally adjusted at Pekin (1901) by a protocol 
signed by the representatives of ten foreign powers. The 
continuation of the "open door" with China was again assured 
through the efforts of Secretary Hay (1904). 

697. Events at Home. Among the domestic events of 
McKinley's administration may be noted: 

(a) the consolidation (1897) of the cities of New York and 
Brooklyn and several other towns and districts of 
Long Island and Staten Island into a so-called Greater 
New York; 

(&) the dedication (1897) of Grant's tomb at Riverside Park 
on the Hudson in New York, on the seventy-fifth anni- 
versary of Grant's birthday; 

(c) the discovery (1897) of the wonderfully rich deposits of 

gold on the Yukon-Klondike rivers by George McCor- 
mick, who had gone to Alaska for the purpose of salmon 
fishing ; 

(d) the opening (1897) of the magnificent Congressional 

Library at Washington, facing the United States 
Capitol. It is a large, massive, granite edifice, rank- 
ing among the finest buildings of its kind in the world, 
and has a capacity of nearly six million volumes; 

(e) the Trans-Mississippi Exposition held at Omaha, Nebraska 

(June to November, 1898), for the purpose of exhibiting 
the wonderful resources and the marvelous progress of 
the states beyond the Mississippi. 



WILLIAM MCKINLEY S ADMINISTRATION 



r>39 



698. The Campaign of 1900. As the time for the presi- 
dential campaign drew near, it became evident that there 
would be little opposition to the nomination of the two 
standard-bearers of the last campaign. The Republicans, in 
their convention at Philadelphia, unanimously renominated 
McKinley on a platform declaring for the gold standard, 
favoring the construction of an isthmian canal by tlie govern- 
ment, and advocating McKinley "s policy of governing our 




» i n 11 1 : : : 




THE CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY 



island possessions and Cuba. The Democrats at their Kansas 
City convention nominated William J. Bryan witli equal 
unanimity, on a platform firmly supporting the fi'ee silver 
plank of 1896, vigorously opposing McKinley 's ''imperiar" 
policy, or government of the Philippines by the United States, 
and demanding that we leave the islands to the rule of theii- 
own native legislature, promising legislation against trusts, 
and favoring the construction of an isthmian canal by govern- 
ment appropriations. 



CHAPTER XL 

A CENTUKY'S PROGEESS 

/ 
699. Area and Extent. The United States within a century 

(1800-1900) has grown from a group of sixteen states east of 
the Mississippi to a recognized "world power." The summer 
sun never sets upon its whole extent, for a new day dawns 
upon the forests of Maine before the night sets in on our 
westernmost islands. When our government began its exist- 
ence under the Constitution during Washington's administra- 
tion it had jurisdiction over the present territory east of the 
Mississippi as far south as latitude 31° — an area of about eight 
hundred thousand square miles. Texas and California were 
parts of Spanish Mexico; Florida and the vast Louisiana 
territory belonged to Spain; and the ownership of Oregon 
was still in dispute between the United States and England. 
Since then the present mainland of the United States has been 
increased by the following accessions : The Louisiana Pur- 
chase ; Oregon ; Florida ; Texas ; Mexican Territory ; and the 
Gadsden Purchase. Thus the continental area of the United 
States, excluding Alaska, is now more than three million square 
miles (3,026,789). When to this continental extent is added 
the outlying possessions — Alaska, Hawaii, Porto Rico, the Phil- 
ippine Islands, Tutuila, and the Panama Canal Zone — an area 
of far more than three million square miles (3,733,364), the 
total expanse of territory under the jurisdiction of the United 
States is over six and one-half millions square miles (6,770,153). 
Since 1800 the number of the states has increased from sixteen 
to forty-eight. Alaska and Hawaii are our only territories. 
Our colonial possessions are governed as dependencies. 

540 



A CENTURY S PROGRESS 



541 



700. Population. After the Revolution the people of the 
United States numbered scarcely four million. Most of these 
were scattered along the eastern seaboard, for but few at this 
time had made their way across the Appalachian Mountains. 
At present (census of 1910) the United States proper has a 
population of nearly ninety-two million (91,972,266). When 
the population of its outlying possessions is added, the total 
numbers over one hundred million (101,179,400), of which 
some twenty-three million (23,301,509) are Catholics. 

The center of pop- 
ulation of the United : 
States has since 1790 
moved westward from 
about twenty miles 
east of Baltimore to 
about fifteen miles 
southeast of Bloom- 
ington, in southern 
Indiana (39° 4' north 
latitude and 86° 19' 
west longitude). Thus 
we see that the Amer- 
ican frontier, that is, 
the border of the set- 
tled and cultivated 

part of the country, which at the beginning of the century 
extended along the eastern slope of the Alleghanies, had with 
the flow of immigration gradually moved westward across the 
Mississippi, the Great Plains, the Rocky Mountains, and even to 
the Pacific coast. At present the American frontier has prac- 
tically vanished. 

701. Immigration. Our marked increase in population in 
more recent years would have been impossible but for the 
great immigration from Europe. For many years after the 
Revolution immigrants came in small numbers, and not before 




A MANILA SCENE 



54:^ A HIST(J^Y OP THE UNITED STATES 

1840 did they average one liinidred thousand a year. During 
the folloAving decade, however, owing to the poverty and 
oppression of the laboring people in Europe, the influx of 
population assumed very large proportions. After 1870 so 
great was immigration to the United States that by 1900 the 
country had added nearly twenty million foreigners to its 
population. The immigrants settled mainly in New England, 
in the great cities (especially New York and Chicago), and in 
the Northwest. Very few settled in the South except in Texas ; 
the negroes as competitive laborers kept them out of what was 
otherwise a most promising section. 

At first these aliens came largely from the British Isles, 
Germany, and the Scandinavian peninsula. They were intelli- 
gent, enterprising, and active in the development of the great 
agricultural states of the West — in brief, they were a desirable 
addition to the population. In recent years, however, a less 
desirable element from southern Europe and eastern Asia 
(China) has found its way to our shores. 

Congress finally amended our immigation laws (1891) by 
enacting measures which, besides denying Chinese laborers 
admission to the United States, also refused entrance to con- 
victs, insane persons, paupers, polygamists, anarchists, persons 
afflicted with contagious diseases, and laborers under contract 
to perform labor or service in the United States, except such 
as were engaged in their professions or in the establishment of 
new industries. It increased tlie tax imposed upon immigrants 
from fifty cents to four dollars per head. A superintendent 
of immigration was appointed, whose duty it was to examine 
into the character of all immigrants. Foreigners to whom 
admission was denied under these laws were sent back at the 
expense of the owners of the vessels which had brought them. 

The "Geary Act," passed by Congress (1892), provided that 
any Chinaman not lawfully entitled to remain in the United 
States should be returned to his native land and that all 
Chinese laborers should be obliged to secure certificates of 



A CENT[TRY S PROGRESS 



543 



residence. If they neglected to do this witliin a year tliey 
were to be sent back to China. Means of executing the 
Act failed, and it was partially repealed in the following 
year. 

As the United States laws confine the privilege of natural- 
ization to persons of the Caucasian and African races, the 
Chinese, even though they should have all other necessary 
qualifications, can not become citizens of the United States. 




NEW YORK WATERFRONT 



702. Cities and Towns. Thu growth and increase of our 
cities and towns, keeping pace with the increase of population 
and the westward expansion of the American frontier, is truly 
marvelous. In 1800 four per cent of the population of the 
United States lived in cities, and of these only five contained 
more than ten thousand inhabitants. The city dwellers at pres- 
ent (census of 1910) number not less than forty-one per cent, 
or more than two-fifths of the total population. New York, our 
metropolis, has a population of over four and one-half millions 
(4,776,883), and among the cities of the world is second only 



544 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

to London. Chicago, our second largest city, numbers over 
two million inhabitants (2,185,288) and ranks fifth among the 
world 's cities in population ; while our third largest city, Phila- 
delphia, numbers over one and one-half million (1,549,008). 
F^ve other cities bave a population of between five hundred 
thousand and one million — Boston (670,585), St. Louis (657,- 
029), Cleveland (560,663), Baltimore (558,485), and Pittsburg 
(533,905). Detroit, owing chiefly to the automobile industry, 
has during the last decade advanced from the thirteenth largest 
city to ninth in rank. 

703. Industries. Agriculture*, still the chief industry of the 
United States, has developed in astounding proportions. Farm- 
ers are advancing in the knowledge of scientific agriculture, 
and are increasing the quantity and improving the quality of 
their products. Gravel roads, railroads, telephones, and rural 
mail deliveries — all convince the farmer that he has many ad- 
vantages over the city dweller. 

Manufacturing, in its infancy in 1789, has increased in enor- 
mous proportions, so that at present we are sending manufac- 
tured articles not only to the leading European nations, but 
also to South America, Africa, and Asia. Our factories give 
employment to over five million persons and produce billions 
of dollars' worth of goods each year. 

Commerce, so restricted in 1789, has kept pace with the 
industries of agriculture and manufacturing. Our country has 
now an extensive import and export trade, and in these re- 
spects is today one of the leading nations of the world. 

704. Inventions and Discoveries. The progress of industries 
in the United States gave rise to an unrivaled activity in inven- 
tions, especially of labor-saving machinery. In 1791 the patent 
office at Washington issued its first patent, one for making 
potash for the manufacture of soap; it has since issued more 
than seven hundred thousand patents. The inventive genius 
of the United States, which leads all other nations, has become 
proverbial. 



A century's progress 545 

The more important inventions since 1789 are : 
(a) the cotton gin (Eli Whitney, 1793) 
(h) light from gas (David Melville, 1806) 

(c) the steamboat (Robert Fulton, 1807) 

(d) the reaping macliine (Cyrus H. McCormick, 1834) 
(c) method of vulcanizing rubber (Charles Goodyear, 1839) 
(/) the first successful telegraph (Samuel F. B. Morse, 1844) 
(g) the sewing machine (Elias Howe, 1845) 

(h) the first practical typewriter (Charles L. Sholes, 1868)- 

(^) the electric street ear (Stephen D. Field, 1873) 

(i) trie telephone (Alexander G. Bell, 1877) 

(/.:) the jetty system on the lower Mississippi (Captain J. B. 

Eads, 1879) 
(Z) the inventions of Thomas A, Edison, such as the electric 

motor, electric light, phonograph, etc. 

705. Light from Gas. David Melville of Newport, Rhode 
Island, attracted by developments made along the lines of 
gas lighting in England, installed in his house and in the 
streets in front of it (1806), the first gas lights used in the 
United States. Soon gas lighting took the place of the old- 
time caudle and oil lighting in the houses and streets of 
cities and larger towns. Gas even supplanted wood and coal 
as fuel in kitchen stoves. 

706. The Sewing Machine. After years of toil and poverty, 
Elias Howe (1845) succeeded in completing the first sewing 
machine which has since been perfected by Wheeler, Wilson, 
Singer, and other inventors. This invention has greatly light- 
ened the burden of woman 's toil and lessened the cost of every- 
thing that can be sewed. 

707. Vulcanization of Rubber. Various attempts had been 
made to manufacture goods from rubber without any practical 
results, however, for the heat melted these goods in summer 
and the cold cracked them in winter. In 1839 Charles Good- 
year of New^ Haven, Connecticut, accidentally discovered a 



546 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



process by which rubber, mixed with sulphur, subjected to 
great heat, couhl be niauufactured iuto waterproof goods, both 
durable and elastic. Considering the great demand for rubber 
manufactures, Goodyear 's invention may be ranked as one 
of the most important of the century. 

708. The Reaper. The old-time methods of reaping grain 
by means of the sickle, scythe, or cradle, have been revolution- 
ized by the invention of the McCormick reaper. Crude grain 
cutters have been superseded by the twine binder harvester 
and, in some of the large farming districts, by the combined 




MODERN FARM MACHINERY 

This machine breaks sod, rolls the land, harrows, and sows seed in one 

operation 

harvester and thresher. The last mentioned is a huge machine 
driven by steam or electricity which makes its way through 
miles of standing grain and leaves behind it grain threshed, 
measured, and bagged. 

709. The Electric Street Car. The first street cars were 
drawn by horses, but electricity, which was fast supplanting 
steam as a locomotive power, converted our horse cars into 
"trolley cars." These not only convey persons from one part 
of the city to another, but also connect many of our towns 
and cities. 



A century's progress 547 

710. Illumination and Heating. Various forms of electric 
lighting liave taken the place of the old-time tallow candle, 
oil lamp, and more recent gas jet. The use of electricity for 
lighting streets and houses was first put into practice by 
Thomas A. Edison of Menlo Park, New Jersey (1878), and 
has since increased with great rapidity. 

Open grates and fireplaces, or open Franklin stoves for burn- 
ing wooden logs or soft coal were long used for warming pri- 
vate houses. After 1835 anthracite stoves came rapidly into 
use, both for heating and cooking purposes. These were devel- 
oped into various forms of hot air and steam furnaces. Since 
1893 electric radiators have come into use. It appears at pres- 
ent that the age of steam is being fast replaced by the wonder- 
achieving age of electricity. It seems impossible to set any 
limit to inventions in connection with this mysterious force. 

711. Telegraphy. The telegraph has connected the numer- 
ous business interests of this vast country today more closely 
than those of as small a state as Delaware were connected a 
century ago. The first cable was laid in the Atlantic by Cyrus 
W. Field (1866). A final link in the chain of communication 
uniting the nations of the world was the Pacific cable, com- 
pleted in 1903. It extends from San Francisco to Hong-Kong 
by way of Hawaii and Manila. The first message, sent by 
President Roosevelt, flashed around the world in less than five 
minutes. The Marconi wireless telegraph by which messages 
are transmitted through the air was first used in the United 
States in 1903 when President Roosevelt sent a wireless mes- 
sage from Cape Cod, Massachusetts, across the Atlantic to 
King Edward VII of England. 

The invention of wireless telegraphy cannot be credited to 
au}^ one mind, although Marconi, an Italian, was the first to 
perfect the appliance used in space telegraphy and the first to 
obtain a patent for it. He came to the United States in 1899. 

More than one hundred shore stations for sending wireless 
telegrams have been established in the United States and 



548 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

nearly two hundred for receiving such are found on our naval 
vessels. All the great ocean steamships and a large number of 
the vessels on interior waters are now fitted out with wireless 
instruments. 

712. The Telephone — Phonograph — Kinetoscope. The possi- 
bility of the telephone had been discovered by Elisha Gray 
of Chicago and several others, but no satisfactory results were 
obtained until 1877, when Alexander Bell put into practical 
use a telephone line between Salem and Boston, a distance of 
sixteen miles. The same year, Gray succeeded in setting up a 
line between Chicago and Milwaukee, a distance of eighty-five 
miles. 

One of the first of the numerous inventions of Thomas A. 
Edison was the phonograph (1879). This remarkable instru- 
ment records and rejiroduces exactly the human voice or the 
tones of any musical instrument. After Mr. Edison gave the 
world the phonograph, he invented (1894) the kinetoscope 
— an instrument which reproduces movable pictures from 
photographs. 

713. The Typewriter, The typewriter is fast supplanting 
the pen in the business world. The first practical American 
typewriting machine was invented by Charles L. Sholes (1868). 
Since then the instrument has been manufactured on a very 
large scale. 

714. The Automobile. To the French is due the credit for 
the invention of the automobile, the use of which has, within 
recent years, increased with astounding rapidity. While the 
automobile is used chiefly as a pleasurable means of travel, 
the usefulness of the automobile fire engine, the motor trucks 
and wagons, and the motor farm implements cannot be over- 
estimated. 

715. Aviation. Still more remarkable than the results of 
wireless telegraphy is the success with which men are navigat- 
ing the air. The first practical attempt to make an aeroplane 
was made by the German scientist. Otto Lilienthal (1891). The 



A century's progress 549 

invention has since been improved upon by both Europeans 
and Americans. Foremost among the latter may be mentioned 
the Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio. 

716. Postal Service. It Avas considered a great achievement 
when Benjamin Franklin, Postmaster-General of the Colonies 
(1754), caused the mail to be delivered three times a week. 
What would the people of those days have said could they have 
seen the ten billion pieces of mail matter which at present are 
carried annually at two cents and less per ounce, over the thou- 
sands of miles of railroad and steamboat lines, and delivered 
from seventy thousand post-offices. Still more would they have 
wondered at the great postal union which arranges for a letter 
to be sent at the rate of two cents per ounce to Great Britain 
and Germany and five cents per ounce to nearly every other 
country of the world. 

717. Our Great Railway System — Standard Time. The de- 
velopment of our great railway system may be classed among 
tlie wonders of the world. The twenty-three miles of experi- 
mental road of 1827, in the building of which the venerable 
Cliarles Carroll turned the first spadeful of earth, have since 
increased to some eighteen hundred railroad lines, with a total 
mileage of two hundred thousand, against one hundred and 
seventy-six thousand miles of the combined countries of 
Europe. These lines, controlled by groups of capitalists, have 
been consolidated into several great systems, each of which 
serves for a particular district. The most important of these 
groups are the Vanderbilt, Pennsjdvania, Harriman, Hill, Mor- 
gan, Gould, Moore, and Rockefeller. 

In order to secure uniform time over long areas, railroad 
comjDanies of the United States agreed to make a change of 
one hour in their time for every fifteen degrees of longitude, 
giving the same time to all places Avithin each time belt. This 
is called Standard Time or Railroad Time. By this system 
the United States is divided into four sections, or time belts. 
Each belt is fifteen degrees wide, that is, extends seven and 



550 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

one-half degrees east and seven and one-half west of an 
adopted meridian. The time of the seventy-fifth meridian is 
called Eastern Time, that of the ninetieth meridian, Central 
Time, that of the one hundred and fifth meridian, Mountain 
Time, and that of the one hundred and twentieth meridian, 
Pacific Time. The local time of the Central meridian of each 
belt is made the standard time for the entire belt. The boun- 
daries which represent the places where the railways actually 
change their time are somewhat irregular, since oftentimes the 
meridians extend through very unimportant points. There- 
fore, instead of following the exact boundaries, railways select 
well known places, as, for instance, Buffalo, Pittsburg, and 
Atlanta, at which cities the change is made from Eastern to 
Central time. 

718. Corporations and Trusts. Since the Civil War, many 
smaller business enterprises have merged into combinations 
called "corporations," or "trusts," which do business on a 
large scale. These corporations and trusts are often highly effi- 
cient, but frequently they are controlled by unscrupulous men, 
in which instance the following evils result : they monopolize 
the trade of the country, and control not only the output of 
the necessities of life but also their prices; they crush out 
smaller rivals by fixing destructive prices or by other unfair 
means; they prevent the man of small means from engaging 
in business for himself to the detriment of general prosperity 
and contentment of society ; they are, to a great extent, the 
cause of the extremes of wealth and poverty found in large 
cities. Because of these evils. Federal and State legislation 
have been directed against them. The Sherman Anti-trust 
Act (1890) prohibits all combinations that control the output 
of commodities. By this Act many of the trusts and pools were 
declared illegal and were dissolved. But in spite of the Sher- 
man Anti-trust Law and the Interstate Commerce Law, the 
Standard Oil Company, the Live Stock and Dressed Beef Com- 
binations, the Steel Trust, and others have secured immense 



A century's progress 551 

advantages over their rivals through discrimination in their 
favor by railroads. For instance, a favored shipper may pay 
full rates at the time of shipment, but afterwards receive a 
rebate of a part of the payment. In many instances the fa- 
vored shippers are themselves heavy stockholders in the rail- 
roads. Many public men believe that the protective tariif also 
has fostered the growth of trusts. The three chief objects of 
trusts and corporations are to reduce the expense in the matter 
of management, to avoid competition between different con- 
cerns, and to place themselves in a position to fix the price on 
their commodities. 

719. Reform Movements. Every movement directed to the 
reformation of the injustice that prevails in the present social 
and industrial world has three purposes : the bettering of the 
conditions of the workingman, the curbing of excessive power 
of capitalism, and the protection of the consumer. These, too, 
are the objects of Socialism, which at present is striving to gain 
a widespread influence over the civil and political world. 

For the achievement of these worthy purposes. Socialism sug- 
gests certain radical changes, chief among which are the fol- 
lowing : that all sources and material of production should be 
owned by the community or collectively by the people as a whole, 
and that no individual or body of individuals should be allowed 
to possess, either in whole or in part, any class of productive 
goods; that all labor should be socially organized and directed 
by officials of the government, and that everyone should re- 
ceive from the warehouses or stores of the nation in pro- 
portion to the productive value of his labor. This radical pro- 
gram of socialism would strike at the foundations of the re- 
pidjlic of Washington, Jefferson, Hamilton, Madison, and others. 
The iiulividuality of the citizen would be so merged in the life 
of the whole that personal ambition would be destroyed, and 
men would be led to sacrifice the most sacred convictions of 
honor and conscience. 

In the last generation there has been a perceptible advance in 



552 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

the manner of governing certain of our charitable institutions. 
American schools for the blind and the deaf are among the best 
in the world ; homes for delinquent children have become effect- 
ive schools of mental and moral training instead of, as formerly, 
reformatory prisons ; homes for orphan children may be found 
all over the country. Especially in those under Catholic super- 
vision children receive a careful bringing up and are well fitted 
for some work by wliich tliey may later earn their livings ; nearly 
every large city has a hospital conducted under the most health- 
ful and sanitary conditions, in which the poor may receive, free 
of charge, medical treatment of the most advanced character. 

720. Social Rank. In the progress of our historical re- 
searches we may have noted that the lines of social rank so 
distinctly drawn during colonial times have disappeared. In- 
stead we find distinct lines drawn between the capitalist and 
the laborer. 

Still, it seems clear that the masses of the people live 
wholesome lives, and that the principles and conscience of 
Americans will not tolerate abuses when once these abuses are 
exposed to view. 

721. The Negro. The negroes who at the middle of the cen- 
tury were still in bondage have since progressed in their sphere 
of freedom. Many of them are taking advantage of the edu- 
cational facilities afforded them, and some remarkable indi- 
viduals, as Booker T. Washington and Frederick Douglass, 
prove that the race is capable of great development. 

Booker T. Washington, born a slave in Virginia, acquired, 
by dint of his own ambition and much hardship, an education 
at Hampton Institute. While an instructor in that school, he 
was employed by the state of Alabama to organize a normal 
school for colored people at Tuskegee. He opened the school 
in an old church and a shanty with an enrollment of thirty 
pupils. The school has since prospered greatly. Its object 
is to give the negroes a practical education along lines of 
trade and industry. Booker T. Washington has become 



A century's progress 553 

noted for his ability as a public speaker and as the author of 
a number of valuable publications. 

Frederick Douglass, reared as a slave on a Maryland planta- 
tion, escaped to the North at the age of twenty-one and there 
gained reputation as a powerful public speaker in behalf of 
the anti-slavery cause. He also gained fame as an orator in 
England. For many years he edited an anti-slavery paper in 
New York and after the Civil War took active part in national 
politics. 

The negro, naturally of a religious nature, is wholesomely 
influenced by the Catholic faith, so that observing men and 
judges of courts have praised the law-abiding spirit existing in 
Catholic colored communities. The negroes of the United 
States naturally adopted, as slaves, the religion of their former 
owners, who were mainly Baptists and Methodists. Hence, 
Catholic negroes are few and live chiefly in those states origi- 
nally settled b}^ Catholics, as Maryland and Louisiana. The 
total number of colored Catholics is only about two hundred 
thousand. 

722. Elementary Education. The United States, realizing 
that all its material advantages would be worth little without 
a moral and intelligent people to make a proper use of them, 
has been among the foremost countries of the world in edu- 
cating its citizens. The American public schools, organized 
by the first generation of settlers in New Netherland and New 
England, as also the private Catholic schools founded by the 
Maryland settlers have many times multiplied in number and 
improved in quality and extent of instruction. Thus the means 
of an elementary education have been placed within conven- 
ient reach of every child. 

723. Catholic Elementary Education. The public school 
system as now constructed, though admirable in many re- 
spects, cannot satisfy the Catholic idea of education. The 
Catholic Church recognizes that religion must be the supreme 
principle in education, as it is in life. If, therefore, the so- 



554 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

called secular branches of knowledge are taught without ref- 
erences to religion, as is the case in our public schools., she 
feels that the "one thing necessary" (Luke 10:42), the most 
important of the educational branches, is being omitted in 
the training of the child. Hence, she tries to supply this defect 
by establishing schools under her own control, the so-called 
Catholic, or parochial schools, in wliich all the branches of the 
public schools are taught, and, in addition, religion and relig- 
ious morality. 

According to the "Catholic Directory" of 1914, the total 
number of parish schools in the United States is over five thou- 
sand (5,403), with an attendance of over one million (1,429,- 
859). This number of pupils is divided among some thirty- 
one thousand teachers, fully nine-tenths of whom are Religious. 
These religious teachers belong to about two hundred and 
seventy-five distinct teaching bodies, including teaching broth- 
erhoods. 

Catholic schools, as a rule, are entirely supported by the vol- 
untary contributions of the Catholics. For a length of time 
after the Revolution, they, as well as the schools of other 
denominations, were assisted by public funds. State after 
state, however, eventually passed laws forbidding the payment 
of public funds toward denominational schools. Whereupon 
many Catholics, with the cooperation of their fair-minded non- 
Catholic fellow citizens, put into practice several plans. Among 
these may be mentioned the Poughkeepsie plan of Poughkeep- 
sie. New York (1873). Under this scheme the school board 
rented the Catholic school buildings and accepted the two 
Catholic schools of the place as public schools under the com- 
mon regulation framed for the public schools. The Catholic 
teachers, who were nuns continued as before and received their 
salaries from the public fund. The arrangement was, however, 
discontinued (1899). The "Faribault plan" was a similar 
arrangement effected by Archbishop Ireland with the school 
boards of Faribault and Stillwater, in Minnesota (1891). Many 



A CENTURY S PROGRESS 555 

Catholics opposed the plan on the ground that religions in- 
struction under the agreement had to be given outside the 
regular school hours. An appeal was made to Rome which per- 
mitted the continuance of the arrangement, but the contro- 
versy existing between the Cvatholics attracted attention and 
aroused sluml)ering anti-Catholic prejudices. 

724. Catholic Negro and Indian Schools. One hundred and 
nineteen Catholic schools accommodate eleven thousand Cath- 
olic negro children of the United States. The number of 
Catholic Indians in the United States is about one hundred 
thousand. Among these are established sixty-three Catholic 
schools, with an attendance of nearly five thousand Indian 
pupils. About six thousand Catholic Indian pupils are edu- 
cated in the government schools. 

Under the so-called ''Peace Policy" inaugurated by Presi- 
dent Grant (1870), about eighty thousand Catholic Indians 
passed from Catholic to Protestant control. Some years later 
the Bureau of Catholic Indian Missions inaugurated by the 
government, provided for the support of Catholic Indian 
Schools. The appropriations of the Bureau were discontinued 
(1900), but many of the schools were kept up by the contri- 
butions of charitable societies and by donations. Since Presi- 
dent Roosevelt's administration a considerable allowance has 
again been made to certain Catholic schools by the government 
through the Catholic Indian Bureau. This allowance is taken 
from the funds of the tribes who send their children to these 
schools. Prominent among the agencies that have success- 
fully labored in behalf of Catholic Indian education has been 
the community of Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament for Indians 
and Colored People, which was founded by Mother Catharine 
Drexel (1889). 

725. Catholic Higher Educational Institutions. The found- 
ing of Catholic institutions for higher learning kept pace with 
the progress of religious toleration. Many Catholic secondary 
or high schools, colleges, and universities, have been opened 



556 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



to the Catholic student without cost to the state. In 1789 there 
was but one Catholic educational institution in the land. Today 
according to the "Catholic Directory" of 1914 there are in 
the country eighty-two ecclesiastical seminaries with an at- 
tendance of over seven thousand students, two hundred and 
thirty colleges for boys, and six hundred and eighty academies 
for girls. 

The total number of pupils in Catholic educational insti- 
tutions of all kinds is over one and one-half million (1,669,391). 




NOTRE DAME UNIVERSITY 



Among the noted Catholic institutions of higher learning 
may be mentioned : Georgetown University, District of Colum- 
bia (1787), in charge of the Jesuits; Notre Dame University, 
South Bend, Indiana (1842), in charge of the Fathers of the 
Holy Cross; Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska (1879), 
in charge of the Jesuits; and the Catholic University of 
America, Washington, D. C. (1889). 

In 1912, hundreds of Georgetown's sons from all parts of 
the Union gathered around their "Alma Mater" on the occa- 
sion of the unveiling of the statue of John Carroll, S. J., the 



A century's progress 557 

first Archbishop of Baltimore. The statue is a gift of the 
University Alumni Association, and represents Father Carroll 
in his Jesuit habit, sitting in an attitude of deep thought, as 
if marveling at the present growth of the little college he 
founded over one hundred years ago. Chief Justice "White, 
Georgetown's most distinguished son, in words as earnest as 
they were well chosen, presented the University with the statue 
of its founder. 

The Catholic University of America was established by the 
American bishops through the liberality of Miss Mary Cald- 
well. It is managed by officers under rules laid down by a 
board of trustees composed of bishops, priests, and laymen. 
The president of the board is the Chancellor of the University, 
and this office is held by the Archbishop of Baltimore. 

726. State Institutions of Higher Learning. Particularly 
notable is the rapid increase in the institutions of higher learn- 
ing. Agricultural colleges supported by appropriations of 
Congress have been opened in numy of the states. 

Horace Mann established in Massachusetts (1840) the first 
Normal School in the United States. The success of his work 
stinudated other states to establish similar schools for the 
training and education of teachers. Normal schools were 
founded in almost all the free states before 1860, and at pres- 
ent scarcely a state can be found which does not contain 
more than one school for this purpose. Meantime, many of 
the states gradually built up institutions of higher learning; 
both professional and scientific. 

Among the colleges and universities of colonial fame may be 
mentioned : Harvard University of Cambridge, Massachusetts 
(1636) ; William and Mary College of Williamsburg, Virginia 
(1693) ; Yale University of New Haven, Connecticut (1701) ; 
Princeton University of Princeton, New Jersey (1746) ; Colum- 
bia University of New York (1754) ; the University of Penn- 
sylvania, founded by Franklin in Philadelphia (1755) ; Brown 
University of Providence, Rhode Island (1764), and Dart- 



558 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

moutli College of Hanover, New Hampshire (1769). Among 
the foremost colleges founded since the Revolution may be 
mentioned : the University of Virginia, founded by Jefferson 
in 1819; the University of Michigan, organized in 1842; the 
University of Wisconsin, in 1850; Washington University at 
St. Louis, in 1857; Cornell University in New York, in 1868; 
Johns Hopkins at Baltimore, in 1876. The Troy Female Semi- 
nary, New York (1821), now called the Emma Willard School 
in honor of its founder, was the first public institution for the 
higher edncation of .women. Not until within the last fifty 
years were the higher schools open to women. Since then 
many colleges have been founded exclusively for their 
education. 

727. Education After School Days. For the encouragement 
of study after school days, literary and scientific organizations 
have been formed, prominent among which are those held on 
the shores of Lake Chautauqua in western New York. Univer- 
sity extension courses, lecture lyceums, and literary clubs are 
also doing very valuable educational work. The Catholic Edu- 
cational Association, composed of Catholic educators and other 
persons interested in Catholic education in the United States, 
holds each year a convention in some one of the larger cities. 
These conventions are attended by hundreds of members of 
the clergy, the brotherhoods, and the sisterhoods. The object 
of the association and its conventions is to promote by study, 
conference, and discussion, the thoroughness of Catholic edu- 
cational work, and to help the cause of Catholic education by 
the publication and circulation of such literary matter as shall 
further these ends. 

728. Medicine — Pure Food Law. Great progress has also 
been made in medical science, particularly surgery. The use 
of ana?sthetics in painful operations was begun in 1844 by 
Horace Wells of Hartford, who used nitrous oxide. A few 
years later Charles Jackson and William Morton of Boston 
introduced the use of sulphuric ether. 



A centttry's progress 559 

Stringent food laws, foi-bidding the use of adulterants in 
foods and medicines, and i-equiring the labels on all such com- 
modities to state exactly what the same contain, were passed 
in 1906. 

729. American Fine Arts. The material development and 
progress of the country so engrossed the attention and ener- 
gies of the American people that for a long time but little 
progress was made in the fine arts. Since the middle of the 
nineteenth century, however, there has been a marked change, 
and though the nation must still find its models in artistic 
achievements in the masters of other lands, it has, neverthe- 
less, produced painters and sculptors who have attracted atten- 
tion in the world of art, while many of our large cities are 
fast becoming interesting art centers. 

730. The Art of Music. In music the United States has made 
only a beginning. It nuist still look for its models to the old 
masters of Europe, for, strictly speaking, its musical pro- 
ductions show no national characteristic, but rather bear the 
impress of foreign music, particularly the German, French, 
and Italian. The nation has, notwithstanding, brought forth 
a school of orchestral writers of high attainment, and a num- 
ber of our great American composers have written very cred- 
itable works. Foremost among American composers may be 
mentioned: John Knowles Paine (1839-1908), a native of 
Maine, who is our earliest comj^oser in large instrumental 
forms; Edward A. McDoM^ell (1861-1908) of New York, a wide- 
famed pianist and composer; and George W. Chadwick (1854- 

) of Massachusetts, who has also won distinction as a 
composer. Other American composers of note are James Dunn 
Parker, George-E. Whiting (a Catholic), Dudley Buck, William 
H. Gilchrist, Horatio Parker, William Mason, and Mrs. H. H. A. 
Beach. 

731. Our National Hymn — Songs — Poems. The Star Span- 
gled Banner is the national ensign of the United States, and a 
song bearing the same title and composed by Francis Scott 



560 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Key is the national anthem. Other patriotic songs are "Hail 
Columbia" by Joseph Hopkinson, and "America" by Samuel 
Francis Smith. 

Among our earlier songs and poems of note may be men- 
tioned: "Columbia," by Timothy D wight; "Marching Through 
Georgia, ' ' by Henry Clay Work ; ' ' Battle Hymn of the Repub- 
lic," by Julia Ward Howe; "The Red, White, and Blue," by 
David T. Shaw; "When Johnnie Comes Marching Home," by 
Patrick Sarsfield Gillmoie; "Dixie," by Albert Pike; "Mary- 
land, My Maryland," by James Ryder Randall; "Tramp, 
Tramp, Tramp," and "The Battlecry of Freedom," by George 
F. Root; "Old Ironsides," by Oliver Wendell Holmes; "The 
Old Oaken Bucket, ' ' by Samuel Woodworth ; ' ' Woodman, 
Spare That Tree," by George Pope Morris; "Concord Hymn," 
by Ralph Waldo Emerson; "The Blue and the Gray," by 
Francis Miles Finch ; ' ' Sheridan 's Ride, ' ' by James Buchanan 
Read. The song, "Home, Sweet Home," though containing 
only twelve lines, is known all over the English speaking 
world. It was written by John Howard Payne of New York. 

732. Musical Societies. A very early musical organization, 
the Stoughton Musical Society, which is still in existence, grew 
out of a singing school founded by William Billings of Boston. 
The Handel and Haydn Society, the most famous body for 
musical development, was organized in Boston (1815). The 
object of both societies, as well as of many less important 
organizations of their kind, was to foster and spread love 
and taste for choral music. In the achievement of this object 
the Handel and Haydn Society deserves to be mentioned as 
the most successful. Out of a friendly visit paid by the Cin- 
cinnati Liedertafel -to the Louisville Liederkranz (1848) grew 
the North American Saengerbund, which is characterized by 
its great festivals, the first of which was held in Cincinnati, 
June, 1849. 

733. Musical Instruments. Musical instruments of the spinet 
and virginal type, as well as the flute and the violin, could be 



A century's progress 561 

found in the homes of the large eastern cities in the seven- 
teenth and eighteenth centuries. Church organs, the harp- 
sichord and the piano followed in due course of time. Jonas 
Chickering was tlie first piano manufacturer in the United 
States (1819). 

734. The Orchestra. Within the last twenty years great 
advance has been made in orchestral composition. The Phil- 
harmonic Orchestra of New York, organized in 1842, was the 
first, and is still one of the most famous. The Boston Symphony 
Orchestra (1861) is probably equal to any in the world. The 
Chicago Symphony Orchestra, founded by Theodore Thomas 
(1890), also deserves special mention. Almost every large 
city of the United States is now becoming active in the orches- 
tral field. 

735. Motu Proprio of Pope Pius X. The first and most 
urgent condition which the Catholic Church imposes in regard 
to her music is that it be in conformity with the place, time, 
and purpose of Divine worship ; that it be sacred, not theatri- 
cal. Accordingly, Pope Pius X issued on November 2, 1903, 
instruction on sacred music in churches and at the same time 
ordered the authentic Gregorian chant to be used everywhere. 
He also caused choir books to be printed under the supervision 
of a special commission. Thus was occasioned the beginning 
of a reform in church music, which, however, is not yet uni- 
versal. Since parochial schools must do the preparatory work 
and lay the foundation for good church singing, the Holy 
Father's decree has occasioned new efforts and activity toward 
the systematic study of vocal music in these schools. 

736. Architecture. The architecture of the United States 
prior to the Revolution was generally English in its origin, 
except in the regions which were essentially Spanish in their 
settlement and development. Examples of Spanish architec- 
ture are the Cathedral of St. Augustine, the fort now called 
Marion, in Florida, and the buildings of the Spanish missions, 
to each of which, as a rule, a church is attached. Traces of 



562 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



French influences are apparent in New Orleans, especially in 
the Ursuline convent, now the Archbishop's palace. Dutch 
and Swedish influence is apparent in such structures as the 
Van Cortlandt Manor on the Hudson, built in 1681. The early 
Constitutional period is noted for the erection of many monu- 
mental buildings, such as the old Capitol at Washington and 
the State House at Boston. Toward the middle of the nine- 
teenth century (1815-1876), architecture, save in the building 




THE WHITE HOUSE AT WASHINGTON 

of churches, declined. During the last quarter of a century, 
however, interest in it was revived by architects of foreign 
training like Richard M. Hunt and Henry H. Richardson. 
The present tendency in the United States is toward the 
French renaissance for residences and hotels, and the Gothic 
and Romanesque for churches. Strictly speaking, America has 
no distinctly national architecture except in the colossal office 



A century's progress 563 

bmldings of the great cities. These towering "skyscrapers," 
steel skeletons encased in a shell of masonry, are of late assum- 
ing more architectural elegance and dignity. 

737. Painting". The first Americans to win distinction as 
painters were Copley, Stuart, and West. American art re- 
mained under British influence until long after the Revolu- 
tion and American artists spent the greater part of their lives 
in Europe. In the nineteenth century, however (1825), Ameri- 
can painting assumed a more national tone under the influence 
of such artists as Thomas Cole, one of the foremost landscape 
painters of the Rocky Mountain scenery, and Bierstadt, Hill, 
Hubbard, and Moran. The centennial exposition (1876) at 
Philadelphia occasioned a great revival in American art, and 
an appreciation of foreign artists, particularly the Frencli. 
Though the American artists have drawn vigor and inspiration 
from European art, they, nevertheless, have developed origi- 
nality in subjects and motives. Two of the greatest American 
artists are James McNeill Whistler and John S. Sargent. Other 
notable painters of the same generation are Winslow Homer, 
Eastman Johnson, John La Farge, and Edwin A. Abbey. Amer- 
ican landscape has become the most distinctly national feature 
of American art. Foremost in this school is George Inness ; 
others well known are A. H. Wyant and Homer Martin. 
Among the artists who have become famous in recent years 
are Chase, Blum, Dewing, Thayer, Brush, Beekwith, Blash- 
field, Bruce, Benson, Tarbell, Vedder, Pearce, Cox, and Walker 

738. Sculpture. The art of sculpture in the United States 
is yet young, being a development of only the last three quar- 
ters of the nineteenth century. Still it early assumed a dis- 
tinctly national character. The Colonial and Revolutionary 
periods afforded no facilities for training in art, no monu- 
ments for study or inspiration. The real development of Amer- 
ican sculpture began with the productions of Horatio Green- 
ough of Boston, one of whose most famous works was the half 
draped statue of Washington which long stood before the 



564 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

national Capitol. Hiram Powers (1805-1873) did work similar 
to Greenough. Thomas Crawford (1813-1857), a pupil of Thor- 
waldsen, is known as the designer of the bronze "Liberty" 
surmounting the dome of the Capitol at "Washington. Other 
sculptors of the same period are F. Ball and L. G. Meade. 
Henry Kirk Brown (1814-1886) was the first whose produc- 
tions, unaffected by his Italian study, bore a distinct national 
character. This is typified in his remarkable equestrian statue 
of George Washington in Union Square, New York. Another 
sculptor, noted for his native tendencies, was Erastus Dow 
Palmer (1817-1904), who was practically self -trained and never 
left America. His ''Angels of the Sepulcher" shows the art- 
ist's strength in religious subjects. The most prominent figure 
thus far among American sculptors is Augustus Saint-Gaudens 
(1848-1907). The brilliant creations of this artist are equal 
to those of renowned European sculptors. His Shaw memorial 
relief at Boston and the statue of Lincoln at Chicago are re- 
markable works of art, and his "General Sherman" in Cen- 
tral Park, New York, places him in the first rank of American 
sculptors. The most important sculptors of animal life are 
the late Edward Kemys, E. C. Potter, and A. C. Proctor. The 
latter has also portrayed the American Indian, but the most 
powerful sculptor of the Indian is Cyrus E. Dallin. The two 
most characteristically American of the younger artists, both 
from the West, are Solon H. Borglum, whose subjects are the 
Indian, the cowboy, and the broncho, and George Barnard. 
New York City is the center of American sculpture. 

739. American Literature. After the Revolution, American 
literature was still in its infancy. The period beginning with 
Jackson 's administration not only ushered in a new era in gov- 
ernment, industry, and national spirit, but also the "Golden 
Age" in American literature. The stirring events which fol- 
lowed the framing of the Constitution, as well as the rapid 
progress of the country, naturally found expressions in the 
songs and stories of our writers. 




HENRY WADSWORTH LONGFELLOW OLIVER WENDELL HOLMES 

JAMES RUSSELL LOWELL JOHN GREENLEAF WHITTIER 



A century's progress 565 

740. American Authors. Washington Irving (1783-1859), 
New York, the "Father of American Literature," was the 
first author to attract attention abroad. He is noted for his 
famous Knickerbocker History of New York, the interesting 
stories of the Sketch Book, and his Life of Christopher Colum- 
bus. Irving and James Fenimore Cooper (1789-1851), New 
York, were the first distinguished authors to choose American 
subjects for their writings. The latter, our first novelist, wrote 
The Spy and many other novels, some of which are based upon 
the history of our country. 

William Cullen Bryant (1794-1878), Massachusetts, the 
"Poet of Nature," sometimes called the American Wordsworth 
(England's poet of Nature), came into fame by his well-known 
I)oem " Thanatopsis, " written when he was only nineteen. He 
also wrote many other poems, among which "To a Waterfowl" 
is especially worthy of note. He is associated with the ' ' Knick- 
erbocker School," a group of writers who, during the first 
quarter of the nineteenth century, made New York the literary 
center of our country. Some of his poems betray anti-Catho- 
lic prejudices, which arose, no doubt, from his erroneous beliefs 
concerning Catholic faith and practices. 

Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803-1882), Massachusetts, the 
' ' Sage of Concord, ' ' became known by his essays as one of the 
great masters of English prose. From the standpoint of Catho- 
licity, however, some of his ideas are obscure and unsound. 
He was color-blind, as it were, to the spiritual and super- 
natural. 

Henry Wadsworth Longfellow (1807-1882), Maine, our most 
loved poet, wrote even before his graduation from college a 
number of poems, among which may be mentioned the "Hymn 
of the Moravian Nuns." Some of his most famous longer 
poems are "Evangeline," the Indian tale "Hiawatha," and 
the Puritan narrative "The Courtship of Miles Standish." 
Among the best known of his short poems are "Psalm of Life," 
"Excelsior," and "The Village Blacksmith." 



566 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

John Greenleaf Whittier (1807-1892), Massachusetts, the 
"Quaker Poet," and the most thoroughly American of all our 
poets, is, next to Longfellow, our most popular verse writer. 
By his anti-slavery writing he became the sturdy poet cham- 
pion of human liberty. Among his best known works are 
"The Barefoot Boy," "Snow-Bound," "Maud Muller," and 
Barbara Frietchie." In some of his poems, Whittier, like Bry- 
ant, exhibits evidences of anti-Catholic prejudices. 

James Russell Lowell (1819-1891), Massachusetts, is noted 
as a poet, essayist, and critic. Among his writings may be 
mentioned "Indian Summer Reverie," "To the Dandelion," 
"The Vision of Sir Launfal," and the "Biglow Papers." Be- 
cause some of his writings are profound, and require much 
thought on the part of the reader, LoAvell, with all his genius, 
is a less popular poet than Longfellow. 

Edgar Allan Poe (1809-1849), Massachusetts, the most imag- 
inative of American writers, is best known as a poet by "The 
Raven," "The Bells," "The Haunted Palace," and "Annabel 
Lee." He is the originator of our modern short story, and his 
works have acquired great popularity in France and England. 
Prominent among his short stories may be mentioned ' ' The Fall 
of the House of Usher" and "The Gold-Bug." 

Oliver Wendell Holmes (1809-1894), Massachusetts, one of 
our most brilliant humorists,, is distinguished both in prose and 
poetry. Like Longfellow, he wrote verses successfully even 
before he finished his college course. His stirring poem "Old 
Ironsides" saved from wreckage the Constitution. The work, 
however, which won him most fame was The Autocrat of the 
Breakfast Table, which consists of a series of essays at once 
philosophical, imaginative, and amusing. 

Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804-1864), Massachusetts, the great- 
est of American romancers, or story-writers, is the author of 
Twice Told Tales, The Scarlet Letter, The House of the Seven 
Gables, Grandfather's Chair, etc. 

Lew Wallace (1827-1905), Indiana, is noted as the author of 



A century's progress 567 

Ben Hur, a Tale of the Christ, one of the most popular novels 
written during tlie last quarter of the century. He also wrote 
The Prince of India and The Fair God. He, like some other 
American authoi\s, has nuirred his works by anti-Catholic 
bigotry. 

Orestes A. Brownson (1803-1876), Vermont, an able American 
reviewer and philosopher, devoted his pen with heroic energy to 
the cause of the Catholic Church, to which he became a convert 
in 1^44. His principal productions are The American Republic 
and The Convert. In the latter work he relates his religious 
wanderings in succession as a Congregationalist, a Presbyterian, 
a Universalist, a Rationalist, and a Socialist, until he found sat- 
isfaction in the solution of his doubts and solace for his troubles 
in the bosom of the Catholic Church. 

Archbishop Hughes (1797-1864), New York, is known not only 
as a most valiant defender of the Catholic Church when it was 
struggling for a footing in a rather hostile community, but also 
as the champion of the '^school question." His lectures, ser- 
mons, and pamphlets on historic and doctrinal subjects, usually 
hastily done, as occasion required, commanded general attention 
from friend and opponent. 

Reverend Abram J. Ryan (1839-1886), Virginia, the "Poet- 
Priest of the South" — Catholic chaplain in the Confederate 
army during the Civil War — is famed for many beautiful poems, 
which are excellent in merit, characterized by subtle harmony 
and strange sweetness and full of fervent feelings of tlie south- 
erner and pious priestly aspirations. Among the most popular 
of his verses are "The Conquered Banner," "Erin's Flag," 
and "The Sword of Robert Lee." 

Brother Azarias (1847-1893), New York, was a member of 
the Cliristian Brothers. He is remarkable for the depth and 
soundness of his thinking and for the beauty, ease, and clearness 
of his style. Among his writings may be mentioned "Develop- 
ment of English Thought," "Aristotle and the Christian 
Church," "Books and Reading," "Philosophy of Literature." 



568 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Alice Gary (1820-1871) and her sister, Phoebe Gary (1824- 
1871), Ohio, are the best women poets America has produced. 
Their poems are thoughtful, graceful, and replete with religious 
feeling. Among their best verses are "Poems of Faith, Hope, 
and Charity, " " Pictures from Memory, " " Order for a Picture. ' ' 

Harriet Beecher Stowe (1812-1896), Gonnecticut, gained re- 
nown by her anti-slavery novel entitled Uncle Tom's Catin. Her 
overdrawn pictures did much to influence the North against the 
South. 

Anna Hanson Dorsey (1815-1896), District of Golumbia, was 
one of the pioneers of Gatholic fiction in the United States. 
Among her principal works are Palms, Oriental Pearls, May 
Brooke, Warp and Woof. 

Mary A. Sadlier (1820-1903), Ireland, a Gatholic, and an inde- 
fatigable writer, is best known by her novels. The Blakes and 
Flannigans (dealing with the school question). Confederate 
Chieftains, Bessie Conway, and Aunt Honor's Keepsake. Her 
stories and translations number more than sixty volumes. 

Helen Hunt Jackson (1831-1885), Massachusetts, known by 
her pen name "H. H.," has l)y her story, Raniona, left a promi- 
nent name in American literature. In this artistic composition, 
perhaps the best novel produced by an American woman, the 
pictures of the mission district of Galifornia are so vividly 
drawn that the story attracts many visitors to the country. 

Louisa M. Alcott (1832-1888), Pennsylvania, a most popular 
writer of her day, won fame as the author of Little Men, Little 
Women, An Old-F ashioned Girl, and many other stories for 
young people. 

741. Our Familiar Historians. William H. Prescott (1797- 
1859), Massachusetts, is well known as the author oi Ferdinand 
and Isabella, Conquest of Mexico, Conquest of Peru. Religious 
prejudices, however, greatly mar the reliability of his otherwise 
excellent works. 

George Bancroft (1800-1891), Massachusetts, has left a great 
work in a History of the United States in Twelve Volumes, the 



A century's progress .569 

first volume of which appeared in 1834. It covers the Colonial 
and Revolutionary periods. As a literary production, it ranks 
high, but from a religious point of view it is objectionable, 
owing to the expression of bigotry against the Catholic religion, 
and the covert inculcation of the pernicious theory of Pantheism. 

Most Reverend Martin John Spalding (1810-1872), Kentucky, 
the seventh Archbishop of Baltimore, is famous for Sketches of 
the Early Catholic Missions of Kentucky, History of the Protes- 
tant Reformation in all Countries, and Miscellanea. Miscellanea 
won great popularity and ran into many editions. 

John L. Motley (1814-1877), Massachusetts, is best known for 
his classic History of the Rise of the Dutch Republic, which he 
completed after ten years of labor. 

Francis Parkman (1823-1893), Massachusetts, is the author 
of The Conspiracy of Pontiac, The Pioneers of France in the 
Neiv World, The Jesuits in North America, and La Salle, or the 
Discovery of the Great West. For the facts of the Jesuit mis- 
sions, Parkman is entirely reliable; but as a Catholic critic has 
well remarked, "Of tlie motives wliieh governed the mission- 
aries, of their faith and charity, as well as of their whole interior 
spiritual life, he understands less than did the untutored 
Indian." 

John Gilmary Shea (1824-1892), New York, was a Catholic 
whose world-wide fame as a scholar and historian is based on 
his Discovery and Exploration of the Mississippi Valley-, The 
History of the Catholic Missions among the Indian Tribes of the 
United States, and The History of the Catholic Church in the 
United States. 

742. Our Present Literary Era. Although the number of 
American writers is far greater at the present era than at any 
time in the past, the standard of excellence is not as high as in 
the days of Longfellow, Emerson, and Lowell. Among the prom- 
nent literary men and women of the present day may be men- 
tioned the following: 

Cardinal Gibbons (1834- ), Baltimore, Maryland, is the dis- 



570 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tinguished writer of Faith of Our Fathers, Our Christian 
Heritage^ and The Ambassadors of Christ — works which are 
rich contributions to American hitters and wliieli have won a 
wide circulation. 

The Right Reverend James L. Spalding (1840- ), Peoria, 
Illinois, has given us productions of a master mind and of a ripe 
and broad scholarship in essays published under the titles of 
Education and the Higher Life, Things of the Mind, Means 
and Ends of Education, Thoughts and Theories of Life and 
Education. 

Father John B. Tabb (1845-1909), Virginia, another poet- 
priest, is noted for his singularly artistic and refined poetical 
works. Some of his volumes are "Poems," "An Octave to 
Mary," and "Poems Grave and Gay." 

Father Francis Finn, S.J. (1859- ), St. Louis, Missouri, 
is the author of numerous wholesome works of literature for 
young people. Among the most popular tales are Percy Wynn, 
Tom Playfair, Mostly Boys, and The Football Game. 

Edmund Clarence Stedman (1833-1908), Connecticut, one of 
the best known and most highly esteemed of our present authors, 
wrote Fort Sumter, Wanted — A Man, The Doorstep, At Twi- 
light, and Alice of Monmouth. 

Eleanor Cecilia Donnelly (1840- ), Pennsylvania, a Catholic, 
is the author of many volumes of verse, including the poems 
"Crowned Stars," "Hymn of the Sacred Heart," "Children of 
the Golden Sheaf. ' ' One of her chief prose works is the Life of 
Father Felix. In the spirit and method of her work she is com- 
pared with Adelaide Procter. 

Maurice Francis Egan (1852- ), Pennsylvania, a Catholic 
author of exquisite taste, has written much and on a variety of 
subjects. As a novelist he will be remembered for The Disap- 
pearance of John Longworthy, Success of Patrick Desmond, The 
Vocation of Edward Conway, and A Marriage of Reason. He 
wrote also juvenile stories, among which Jack Chumleigh is 
noted for fun and frolic. As a poet, Doctor Egan ranks high in 



A century's progress 571 

American literature. Two volumes of verse published by him 
are Preludes and Songs and Sejunets. 

Francis Marion Crawford (1854-1909), holds the first place 
in the American school of romantic novelists. Among his 
stories may be mentioned A Roman Singer, Dr. Cletudius, and 
Marzio's Crucifix. He spent the greater part of his life in Rome, 
and his strongest subjects were Italian life and scenery. 

Other American writers of the present era are : Thomas 
Bailey Aldrich (1886- ), New Hampshire; Charlt*s W. Stod- 
dard (1843- ), New York; James Jeffrey Roche (1847- ), 
Ireland; Father John Talbot Smith (1855- ), New York, and 
many others whom limited space does not permit us to mention. 

Though the standard of excellence in American literary 
productions is not so high at present as in the "Golden Age" 
of Jackson's administration, the writers of history have been 
fairly successful in maintaining the standard set by Parkman, 
Bancroft, Motley, and Shea. Among historians of note may be 
mentioned Rev. A. Guggenberger, S.J. (1841-1906) ; Charles F. 
Lummis (1850- ), Massachusetts; James Schouler (1839- ), 
Massachusetts ; John B. McMaster (1852- ), New York ; Henry 
Adams (1858- ), Massachusetts; and James Ford Rhodes 
(1848- ), Ohio. 

743. Catholicity. Religious liberty is, perhaps, less restricted 
in the United States than in any other country on the globe. 
Under the Constitution, every man may believe and preach what 
he will, so long as his doctrines and practice are not contrary to 
public morals and do not infringe upon the rights of others. 
If it is true that the Constitution is in harmony with the Catho- 
lic religion, it is also true that no religion in the United States 
is more in accord with it than is the Catholic. While the 
State is independent of the Church, this external separation 
in their different spheres does not hinder them from meeting 
on the fundamental religious principle, that God is the source 
of all government and all authority. 

In the United States, the Catholic Church, whose children 



572 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



were the first in discovery, first in the establishment of Chris- 
tianity, first in the organization of civil government, first in 
proclaiming religious toleration, and first and unanimous in 
the support of Washington, has left monuments and memorials 
of her passage from the Canadian borders to the southern- 
most coast of Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. 
These monuments and memorials may be traced in the numer- 
ous churches, religious houses, and institutions of piety, char- 
ity, and learning, as also in 
the names of cities, moun- 
tains, rivers, and bays. The 
marvelous growth of the 
Church in numbers, achieve- 
ments, and popularity, today 
engages the attention of the 
world. After the Revolu- 
tion, Bishop Carroll, the sole 
bishop, with thirty or forty 
priests ministered to a flock 
of about fifty thousand souls, 
all scattered over a vast 
area, in which there were no 
schools, colleges, hospitals, or 
asylums; now (1914) the 
Catholic Church numbers 
fourteen archbishops — three 
of whom are cardinals, — ninety-nine bishops, 18,568 priests, 6,602 
educational institutions in which are distributed about 1,669,391 
students, and over four hundred hospitals which annually care 
for about half a million patients. Bishop Carroll 's flock of fifty 
thousand has increased to a Catholic laity of 16,067,985 souls, 
whose" spiritual wants are administered to in 14,651 churches. 
Verily, the "mustard seed" has developed into a "mighty tree." 
The Catholics of the United States have given the country a 
long line of illustrious men — theologians, philosophers, schol- 




CARDINAL GIBBONS 



A century's progress 573 

ars, orators, statesmen, soldiers, and sailors, a vast number of 
artisans and craftsmen who, by labor and thrift, have contrib- 
uted to the growth of the wealth of the country. Their mission- 
aries have sought out the most savage Indian tribes, and have 
won them to Christianity and civilization. Their sisterhoods 
have brought relief and comfort to multitudes in hospitals, on 
the battlefield, and in tenements. The teaching brotherhoods 
and sisterhoods of the Church have gathered in thousands of 
children to the nation, and fitted them to become worthy citi- 
of America, and an honor to the Church and State. 



CHAPTER XLI 

THEODOKE EOOSEVELT'S ADMINISTKATION 

REPUBLICAN, 1901-1909 

744. McKinley Is Re-elected. The interesting campaign of 
1900, which we have already traced, resulted in the re-election 
of William McKinley by the large majority of two hundred 
and ninety-two electoral votes over Bryan, the Democratic 
choice. Theodore Roosevelt was chosen Vice-president. 

President McKinley had endeared himself to the people by 
his personal graciousness and tact, and had won popular 
esteem during his first administration. His second term seemed 
even more promising. But scarcely had six months elapsed 
when (September 6), during a public reception given in honor 
of the President, at the time of the Pan-American Exposition 
at Buffalo, Czolgosz, an anarchist, concealing a revolver under 
cover of a bandaged hand, approached the President, appar- 
ently to shake hands, and shot him. The wounded executive 
died eight days later, our third martyred President. The 
tragedy shocked the whole .world. The remains of President 
McKinley were conveyed to Washington and thence to Can- 
ton, Ohio, amidst the most touching manifestations of popular 
grief. While the interment was taking place (September 19) 
all business was suspended throughout the country. His last 
words, "God's will be done, not ours," were spoken to his 
grief-stricken wife. 

745. Roosevelt Enters Upon the Presidential Office. Tlieo- 
dore Roosevelt, the Vice-president, took the oath of office as 
President at Buffalo, New York, on the day of McKinley 's 
death, and at once assumed the duties of his office. He fol- 

574 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 



575 



lowed his predecessor's policy and, for the time, retained his 
Cabinet. 

Theodore Roosevelt was born in New York, 1858, His fam- 
ily, one of the oldest in the United States, was prominent in 
the early history of New York under the Dutch rulers of the 
province. He first came to national notice at the time of the 
Spanish-American War. After the war he was elected gov- 
ernor of New York, 
from which position he 
advanced to the vice- 
presidency of the 
United States and next 
to the presidency. As 
President he was direct 
and vigorous in his 
methods of conducting 
the nation 's business. 
Tliough his aggressive- 
ness aroused criticism, 
his honest, fearless per- 
sonality soon won for 
liim a great popular- 
ity, which fact enabled 
him to secure a con- 
siderable amount of 
good legislation, as well 
as to exercise great in- 
fluence upon the gen- 
eral course of politics throughout the country. His greatest 
service to the country probably consists in his resolute enforce- 
ment of such laws as affected the methods of business employed 
by monopolies and great corporations. He is often criticized 
for neglecting to use his great influence against the excessive 
protective tariff which tended to encourage unfair monopolies 
and a corrupt use of money in politics. 




THEODORE ROOSEVELT 



576 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

During Roosevelt's two terms of presidency, the Cabinet 
underwent many changes. On the whole, the members of the 
Cabinet, to Avhich was added (1903) a Secretary of Commerce 
and Labor, formed a very able body of counsellors and admin- 
istrators. Three of these became especially notable — John 
Hay, who served as Secretary of State under McKinley and 
retained this office until his death (1905) ; Elihu Root, who 
was Secretary of War until he succeeded Mr. Hay as Secre- 
tary of State, and William H. Taft, who resigned the post 
of first civil governor of the Philippine Islands under Ameri- 
can rule to succeed Mr. Root as Secretary of War. All three 
in their respective departments were able advisers to the 
President. 

746. The Anthracite Coal Strike. The most serious strike 
on record in American industrial history occurred (1902) in 
Pennsylvania. Under the leadership of John Mitchell, the 
president of the United Mine-workers of America, the anthra- 
cite coal miners of Pennsylvania demanded an increase of 
wages and a reduction in the hours of labor. The mine owners 
refused to arbitrate the questions in dispute, and consequently, 
one hundred and forty-seven thousand workmen were thrown 
out of employment for nearly five months, while a great fuel 
famine paralyzed industry and occasioned much sufifering 
throughout the country. Finally, owing to the influence of 
President Roosevelt, who voiced the demands of public senti- 
ment, the trouble was adjusted by a commission which decided 
in favor of the miners. 

747. The Isthmian Canal. The expanding industrial interests 
of the United States as a world jjower necessarily revived the 
Panama Canal problem and the most important legislation of 
Roosevelt's first term was the Spooner Act (1902) which 
authorized Congress to construct the Panama canal. As a 
result, our government purchased the rights and property of 
the French Panama Canal Company for forty million dollars, 
promptly appropriated ten million dollars and authorized the 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT S ADMINISTRATION 



577 



issuance of one hundred and thirty million dollars in bonds. 
The great task of digging the canal began May 1, 1904, and 
was completed in the summer of 1914. The canal enables our 
eastern ports to compete on even terms with the great ports 
of Europe in the commercial operations with China and Japan. 
The canal is about fifty miles long, measuring from deep 
water in the Atlantic to deep water in the Pacific. The average 




mii;ai'|.(ii;es lu( ks, taxama canal 

width of the canal is six hundred and forty-nine feet. The 
least depth of water at any point is forty-one feet. The cost 
of building the Panama canal is estimated at about four hun- 
dred million dollars. 

The history of an isthmian canal dates back almost to the 
discovery of America. By the Clayton-Bulwer Treaty the 
United States and England agreed to renounce the right to 



578 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

acquire independent control of an isthmian canal route. In 
1881 a French company, under the leadership of Ferdinand 
de Lesseps, constructor of the Suez canal, began the construc- 
tion of a canal at Panama. After several years of work at 
enormous expense the company became bankrupt and had to 
abandon the project. The United States had in past years 
authorized several surveys with a view of establishing a route 
through Nicaragua. The fact that the warship Oregon was 
obliged to make its long journey from San Francisco around 
Cape Horn in order to join the Atlantic squadron during the 
Spanish-American War, attracted attention to the difficulty of 
defending the two coasts of our country, and the demand for 
a canal became loud. An American company had in the mean- 
time acquired the property of the French Panama Canal Com- 
pany for a total of forty million dollars and offered it for sale 
to the United States. Through the diplomacy of Secretary 
Hay, the new Hay-Pauncefote Treaty superseded (1901) the 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty. This conceded to the United States 
the right to own and control a future isthmian canal. A treaty 
with Colombia was next proposed, but this the republic rejected. 
Consequently, the disappointed inhabitants of Panama, consid- 
ering their interest disregarded, revolted, and set up a republic, 
independent of Colombia. This republic was promptly recog- 
nized by Congress and a treaty was entered into which secured 
to our government the control of a ten-mile strip across the 
isthmus. When Colombia interfered the United States sent 
troops to Panama, and American battleships prevented Colom- 
bia from landing a force to recover the seceded state. Fortu- 
nately, the revolution of Panama led to no serious disturb- 
ances, as the smaller nation yielded to a superior power. The 
proceedings of the United States, however, have been severely 
criticized by the Colombians, and by many Americans, as well 
as by foreign nations. 

748. Irrigation of the Western Arid Lands. The western 
public domain included immense tracts of arid land. To irri- 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT 'S ADMINISTRATION 579 

gate and reclaim these for cultivation, Congress enacted (1902) 
a lav\^ which provides that the proceeds from the sale of public 
lands in certain western states — Arizona, California, Colorado, 
Idaho, Kansas, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North 
Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming — be expended in the construction 
of irrigation works, such as dams, reservoirs, and canals. Thus 
vast regions of hitherto useless lands are being made productive 
and available for settlers. 

749. The Alaskan Award. Long-standing disputes concern- 
ing the boundary between the United States and Canada were 
called forth by the discovery of the Klondike gold fields. The 
trouble was successfully adjusted by arbitration (1903). 
Practically the whole of the disputed region was awarded to 
the United States, and our right to the control of the mainland 
shore thus confirmed. 

750. Trans-Pacific Cable. The acquisition of the Philippines 
and the Hawaiian Islands soon suggested that some quick and 
convenient means of communication with these countries be 
established. Accordingly, a Trans-Pacific cable was laid (1903), 
which connects San Francisco with Hong-Kong, Honolulu, 
Guam, and Manila. 

751. Three National Anniversary Celebrations. The one- 
hundredth anniversary of the Louisiana Purchase was com- 
memorated by a World's Exposition held at St. Louis (1904), 
the metropolis of the land first visited by the illustrious La 
Salle. The fair was held in 1904, the year succeeding the 
centennial (1903), owing to the fact that arrangements were 
not completed in due time. In the number and magnificence 
of its structures, as well as in the exhibition of the useful and 
the beautiful, this exposition ranked as one of the most attract- 
ive and beneficial ever held. It was attended by nearly nineteen 
million persons and its cost amounted to nearly fifty million 
dollars. 

The one-hundredth anniversary of the Lewis-Clark Expedi- 
tion was celebrated (1905) by an oriental fair at Portland, 



580 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Oregon, in full view of the Cascades and their snow-capped 
peaks. From all parts of tlie world came representatives to 
view the wonderful growth which the Oregon country had 
made since the Lewis and Clark explorations, by which the 
right of the United States to our first Pacific possessions was 
confirmed. A notable feature of the fair was the extensive 
display made by Asiatic nations. 

The three-hundredth anniversary of the settlement of James- 
town (1607) was commemorated by the Jamestown Exposition 
held at Norfolk, Virginia (1907). Its most notable and enter- 
taining exhibit was the grand naval parade in which all the 
great nations of the world participated. 

752. Two Appalling Disasters. Two appalling disasters oc- 
curred about this time. The excursion steamer. General Slocuni, 
crowded with women and children on a Sunday-school picnic, 
went down with more than one thousand passengers, in the 
waters of the East River just outside of New York harbor. 
The other disaster occurred in Chicago, where a fire broke out 
in the Iroquois theater during a matinee performance. Over 
seven hundred people were burned or trodden to death. 

753. The Campaign of 1904. Roosevelt's first term proved 
a ])eriod of great prosperity and there was general satisfaction 
with the President's straightforward policy and executive 
ability. Hence, on the approach of the presidential campaign 
of 1904, it seemed a foregone conclusion that he Avould be liis 
own successor. He was unanimoush^ renominated by the 
Republican convention held at Chicago. The Democrats in 
their convention at St. Louis named Judge Alton B. Parker, 
of New York, as their candidate. The Socialist party nomi- 
nated Eugene V. Debs ; the Populists, Thomas E. Watson ; and 
the Prohibitionists, Silas C. Swallow\ The campaign issue was 
largely one of personal popularity of the candidates. 

The silver issue was not an important question, as the rich 
gold deposits discovered in the Klondike regions of Canada 
and Alaska had caused an increased supply of gold coin, and 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT 'S ADMINISTRATION 581 

a steady general prosperity existed. On the question of 
imperialism, or the permanent retention of the Philippines, the 
parties differed but little at that time. Both adopted a colonial 
policy as temporarily inevitable, but stood, nevertheless, for 
eventual indepencfence of the islands. On the question of the 
tariff, the Republicans favored a protective tariff, though they 
did not state whether it should be increased or decreased; the 
Democrats advocated its reduction, as a means of restricting 
the power of capitalistic combinations. The Republicans wished 
, to subject the combinations of capital and labor to restraint 
only when they became dangerous to private rights ; the Dem- 
ocrats stood emphatically against monopolies altogether, and 
accused the Republicans of an alliance with corporations and 
trusts. 

754. Roosevelt is Re-elected. The election of 1904 resulted 
in a sweeping victory for the Republicans. Theodore Roosevelt 
was elected by a majority of one hundred and ninety-six elec- 
toral votes over Parker, the Democratic candidate. Charles W. 
Fairbanks of Indiana was chosen Vice-president. 

755. War between Russia and Japan. At the close of the 
Boxer trouble in China, the Russian government refused to 
withdraw the troops which it had stationed in Manchuria, 
China, for the protection of the Chinese Eastern Railroad. 
The event was looked upon by Japan as a menace to her 
national safety and commercial interests ; and consequently she 
declared war against Russia. This war proved to be one of the 
most bloody engagements of modern times and threatened to 
involve other nations. The western nations watched the strug- 
gle with great concern, and were shocked by the frightful loss 
of life. Finally, through the diplomacy of Secretary Hay and 
President Roosevelt, commissioners from each of the warring 
countries met at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and after long 
weeks of discussion sign<Ml a treaty of peace (1905). 

756. Important Legislations of Roosevelt's Second Term. 
During the second term of President Roosevelt's administra- 



582 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

tion, Congress enacted some important legislation : the meat 
inspection law, which Avas occasioned by the disclosure made 
in a popular novel, The Jungle, concerning bad conditions 
existing in the Chicago meat packing establishments ; a pure 
food law by which manufacturers of prepared foods and drugs 
are forbidden to use adulterants in foods and medicines, and 
are required to label all food stutifs and packages so as to state 
exactly what they contain ; the Oklahoma and Indian Terri- 
tories were admitted as one state, the forty-sixth, under the 
name of the former, with Guthrie as its capital (in 1910, how-, 
ever, Oklahoma City became the capital) ; stricter naturaliza- 
tion laws were passed. These increased the head tax on immi- 
grants from fifty cents to two dollars, excluded undesirable 
classes, especially anarchists, and regulated more carefully the 
process of naturalization ; a new Interstate Commerce Law 
was passed. It reorganized the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
sion and gave it the power to fix rates, though the railroads 
retained the right of appeal to the courts. Railroad companies 
were forbidden to engage in any other business. 

757. An Insurrection in Cuba. An insurrection in Cuba 
(1906) placed the civil affairs of the island in a most critical 
situation. Upon President Palma's appeal for aid, Roosevelt 
sent William II. Taft, then Secretary of War, to adjust the 
internal affairs of Cuba. Reports to the effect that the gov- 
ernment of the island was not stable and could last but a few 
months longer, induced the President to send United States 
troops to Cuba. Finally, after the resignation of the Cuban 
president and vice-president, the island was placed under a pro- 
visional governor and peace was restored. The United States 
troops were then withdrawn. 

758. The San Francisco Disaster. A series of earthquake 
shocks occurred in California (1906). They brought disaster 
upon San Francisco and adjacent cities and towns. In San 
Francisco the shocks were followed by a terrible conflagration. 
Miles of the business part of the city were destroyed, hundreds 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT 'S ADMINISTRATION 583 

of lives lost, and nearly two hundred thousand people rendered 
homeless. The Californians, noted for their ability to cope with 
great difficulties, at once began the work of reconstruction and 
before the end of the year, earthquake-proof and fire-proof 
buildings of steel, stone, brick, or concrete dotted the fire-swept 
area. Within three years a new city had been erected on the 
ruins of the old. In solidity and beauty it far surpasses the 
former. In the meantime, however, Oakland, Los Angeles, and 
kSeattle gained greatly in population and business prosperity at 
the expense of San Francisco. 

759. The Second Peace Conference. For the second time an 
International Peace Conference met at The Hague (1907). 
Twenty-one nations were represented by distinguished dele- 
gates. The principal outcome was the establishment of the 
International Court of Arbitration commonly known as The 
Hague Tribunal. Both of these conferences, in Avhich the 
United States took a leading part, gave rise to the hope that 
the time would soon come when national disagreements would 
be settled by arbitration. 

760. Conservation of Our Natural Resources. Of great na- 
tional importance was a Congress of State Governors and other 
national leaders, summoned by President Roosevelt to Wash- 
ington (1908) for the purpose of considering the conservation 
of our natural resources. The aim was to devise some ways 
and means of preserving our forests, agricultural lands, coal 
mines, waterways and water power, fisheries, and game from 
depletion or destruction. As a people, Americans have been 
extremely wasteful of these natural resources of wealth, and 
it is now generally realized that if the waste is continued it 
will necessarily lead, sooner or later, to complete exhaustion. 
The Congress of (4over)iors adopted the following resolutions: 
that forests be conserved and increased ; that necessary pro- 
visions be made to prevent erosion, or washing away of arable 
lands; that waters be guarded and used to the best interests 
of the community ; that arid regions be irrigated and swamps 



584 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

drained, and, in general, that all sources of national wealth be 
sacredly preserved for the community as a whole, and no 
monopoly thereof tolerated. 

For the conservation of forests, the Federal government 
transferred the national forest reserves, embracing sixty-three 
million acres, to the Department of Agriculture. A separate 
bureau, tJie Forest Service, employs a body of some one hun- 
dred and fifty professionally trained foresters who care for 
forests and public lands, and cooperate with private owners 
in introducing scientific forestry and in preventing reckless and 
wholesale cutting and careless burning of timber lands. 

Besides earing for our forests the Federal government has 
done much through the agency of the Fish Commission to make 
good the waste occasioned by our earlier prodigality. Lakes 
and streams have been restocked with fish, and more stringent 
fish laws have been passed prohibiting fishing at certain times 
and places. Laws are being enforced forbidding the killing 
of game, except at stated times; while large parks are pro- 
vided in which game may increase and mvdtiply. 

Included in the movement of conservation of our natural 
resources, is the proposal to improve our waterways, and so 
make them a means of competition with railroads. A plan to 
establish a ship route between Lake Michigan and the Gulf of 
Mexico is especially favored. 

761. The United States Naval Cruise. Another of the most 
noteworthy events of President Roosevelt's administration was 
the globe-circling voyage of a fleet of American battleships 
(December 16, 1907 -February 22, 1909). After a display in 
Hampton Roads, Virginia, the fleet of sixteen warships, in com- 
mand of Rear-Admiral Evans, set out by way of South America 
and the Pacific coast to San Francisco; thence, westward, 
under Rear-Admiral Sperry, to the Hawaiian Islands, the 
Philippines, Japan, and China, and finally back home by way 
of the Indian Ocean, the Suez Canal, the Mediterranean Sea, 
and the Strait of Gibraltar. After having traversed a distance 



THEODORE ROOSEVELT 'S ADMINISTRATION 585 

of more than thirty thousand miles, the fleet arrived at Hamp- 
ton Roads on February 22, 1909. This cruise is noteworthy in 
naval history since it proved not only the expert seamanship 
of our navy, but also called into expression the friendly dis- 
position of foreign nations and impressed upon them the 
strength of the American Republic. The sailors and officers 
were welcomed at all ])orts with warm enthusiasm. 

762. Death of Leo XIII — Election and Coronation of Pius X. 
During the course of this administration the Catholic world 
mourned the death of the illustrious Pope Leo XIII. He was 
born at Caa^iiieto, Italy, March 2, 1810, was elected Pope, 
February 20, 1878, and died at Rome, July 20, 1903. The 
cardinals immediately entered into a conclave and by fifty-five 
out of the possible sixty votes, elected (August 4) Guiseppe 
(Joseph) Sarto, Pope Pius X, as the successor of Leo XIII. 
His coronation took place on the following Sunday, August 9, 
1903. 

Catholics are especially grateful to Pius X for his promotion 
of frequent, and even daily Holy Communion; for enforcing 
again the ancient law of admitting children to Holy Com- 
munion at an early age, and for his Motu Proprio on sacred 
music. 

763. Death of Eminent Americans. The death of three men 
eminent in the service of the country occurred during Presi- 
dent Roosevelt's administration: 

John Hay, who had served the country as an able statesman 
since 1861 ; Lew Wallace, the soldier and writer ; and Grover 
Cleveland, who gave the nation two successful administrations. 

764. The Panic of 1907. Badly managed monopolies of trade 
and of railroads, and unscrupulous speculations in banking 
caused a financial scare in 1907, which, beginning in Wall 
Street, New York, soon spread to all the business centers of 
the country. Depositors withdrew their money from the banks 
and hoarded it. The consequent shortage of money occasioned 
Congress to enact (1908) a law providing for the issuance by 



586 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

national banks of emergency currency. After nearly two 
years, business resumed its normal conditions. 

765. The Campaign of 1908. In the presidential campaign 
of 1908 the Republicans in their convention at Chicago, nomi- 
nated as their candidate, William H. Taft of Ohio, the well- 
known jurist, Secretary of War, and governor of the Philip- 
pine Islands during the period of their reconstruction. Their 
platform stood for emergency currency, publicity of campaign 
expenses, and the issuance of writs of injunction by the Federal 
courts, in cases involving labor disputes. This latter plank 
failed to satisfy some of the Republican labor leaders, who 
finally supported the Democratic party, which, at Denver, 
nominated on the first ballot William J. Bryan of Nebraska. 
Its platform also favored emergency currency and the pub- 
licity of campaign expenses, a revision of the tariff, anti-injunc- 
tion legislation with regard to labor disputes, an income tax, 
and government guarantee of deposits in national banks. Other 
candidates in the field were the Socialist, Eugene V. Debs, and 
the Prohibitionist, Eugene W. Chafin. 



CHAPTER XLII 



WILLIAM H. TAFT'S ADMINISTEATION 
REPUBLICAN — 1900-1913 

766. Taft and Sherman Are Elected. The presidential elec- 
tion of 1908 was again a Kepubliean victory. William H. Taft 
secured an electoral majority of one hundred and fifty votes 
over William J. Bryan, 
the Democratic candi- 
date. James S. Sher- 
man of New York was 
chosen Vice-president. 
William H. Taft 
(1857- ) was born in 
Ohio and was educated 
at Yale University. 
Among the public offi- 
ces which he had hon- 
orably held previous to 
his election as the na- 
tion 's executive may be 
mentioned those of 
president of the United 
States Philippine Com- 
mi.ssion, first civil gov- 
ernor of these islands 
(1901), and Secretary 
of War during Roose- 
velt's administration. The experience gained in the broad scope 
of his civil duties, served him well in his office as President of 

587 




WILLIAM HOWARD TAFT 



588 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

the nation. His administration was characterized by a keen 
sense of justice, a sincerity of purpose, and a high sense of pub- 
lic duty. 

767. The Payne-Aldrich Tariff. In the presidential campaign 
of 1908 both parties stood for tariff revision. Consequently, 
after entering upon his office, President Taft promptly called 
an extra session of Congress and, after months of heated de- 
bates, the Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill "v/as passed (August, 1909). 
This measure, like the McKinley and Dingley tariff bills, was, 
contrary to the expectations of the people at large, highly pro- 
tective. On the whole, it practically increased their rates. 
A very important clause of the Payne-Aldrich Bill provided 
for the appointment of a Tariff Board for purposes of investi- 
gation and to serve the President as a body of advisers on the 
subject. 

768. The Postal Savings System. Following the example of 
foreign countries, Congress enacted (1910) a measure provid- 
ing for the establishment of a postal savings bank system. 
According to this system any post-office wdiere money orders 
are issued, may become a postal savings bank. These banks 
are completely in charge of a board of three trustees consist- 
ing of the Postmaster-General, the Secretary of the Treasury, 
and the Attorney-General. Any person ten years of age or 
over may become a depositor, but there is a restriction that 
no one can deposit more than one hundred dollars in a calendar 
month, or five hundred dollars altogether. Deposits must be 
made in sums of one dollar or multiple thereof, but smaller 
amounts can be saved by use of a card and stamp system, 
allowing accumulation up to one dollar, when the card and 
stamp can be deposited at the post-office. Interest is paid at 
the rate of two per cent per annum and deposits may be with- 
drawn on demand. Though this system is only in its infancy, 
financiers believe that many millions of dollars wdiich have 
been in hiding, or needlessly expended in small amounts, will 
be entrusted to the government, as it guarantees payment and 



WILLIAM H. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 589 

gives the depositor absolute assurance of receiving back his 
money. 

769. Reciprocity with Canada Is Defeated. In accordance 
with the request of President Taft in his message to congress, 
a bill providing for reciprocity with Canada was presented, 
and after months of debate and strong opposition in the Sen- 
ate, was passed (1911) by both houses of Congress. In the 
Canadian Parliament, however, the reciprocity agreement was 
defeated. Thus the trade relations between the United States 
and Canada stand as they did before. 

770. Discovery of the Two Poles. After twenty years of 
hazardous and difficult searching for the North Pole, Com- 
mander Robert E. Peary's efforts were finally crowned with 
success by its discovery in 1909. 

Captain Roald Amundsen, a Norwegian explorer, discovered 
the South Pole two years later (1911). 

771. The Treaty with Japan. Through the diplomacy of 
President Taft and Secretary Knox, a new treaty with Japan 
was negotiated (March, 1911). The clause recognizing the 
American right to exclude laborers from our country, which 
was included in the old treaty and which greatly hurt Japanese 
pride, was omitted in the new treaty. The treaty conceded to 
Japan the right to adopt a high protective tariff against Amer- 
ican and other foreign trade. Since this is a right which we 
claim and exercise for ourselves we cannot reasonably with- 
hold it from Japan. The old treaty limited to a low percentage 
the duties which Japan might charge on goods coming from 
the United States. The treaty met with opposition from west- 
ern senators, especially because of the omission of the anti- 
immigration clause, which they feared might open the door 
to swarms of Japanese coolies whose presence, because of their 
cheap labor, was dreaded by American workingmen. These 
fears were, however, somewhat allayed when a statement 
signed by the Japanese ambassador at Washington was added 
to the treaty. According to this official declaration the Jap- 



590 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

anese governmeDt for several years has been checking the 
immigration of Japanese to America. 

772. Trouble with Nicaragua. An insurrection in Nicaragua 
(1909-1910) resulted in the deposition of the aged president, 
Zelaya, and the selection of a new executive, Jose Estrada, 
by the insurgents. Preceding the deposition two American 
surveyors, Canon and Groce, residing in Nicaragua, were 
imprisoned and shot by Zelaya's orders, on charge of being 
adventurers fighting in the ranks of the insurgents. On receipt 
of the news, our government sent a number of American war 
ships to Nicaraguan ports. An investigation of the matter was 
begun and war between Nicaragua and the United States 
seemed imminent. Matters, however, were finally peaceably 
adjusted. 

773. Mexican Border Warfare. Scarcely had the trouble 
with Nicaragua subsided when our relations with Mexico be- 
came strained (1910-1911). Mexican insurgents headed by 
Francisco A. Madero revolted against President Diaz because 
of the tyrannical rule of the latter. During the course of 
the uprising the rebels advanced upon the Texas and Ari- 
zona borders, and affairs became so critical that our War 
Department sent troops to guard the Rio Grande. President 
Taft, in consequence of the killing and wounding of several 
Americans in Arizona, warned the Mexican government and 
the insurgents not to endanger American lives by fighting so 
near the border, and even threatened to intervene. After 
months of resistance, President Diaz, seeing that the insurgents 
were gaining their cause, issued a manifesto of resignation. A 
provisional president was elected and the revolution seemed 
to be at an end. 

774. The Newfoundland Fishery Question. The long stand- 
ing disputes between the United States and Great Britain 
regarding the right of fishing off the coast of Newfoundland 
were submitted to The Hague Tribunal for arbitration (1910). 
This was the most important case thus far decided by the Inter- 



WILLIAM H. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 591 

national Peace Coiuuiission. Both countries submitted to the 
verdict, though neither was wholly satisfied. The decision was 
clearly against the United States. Of the questions presented 
to the Tribunal the two most important were decided in favor 
of Great Britain and the remaining, which were of much less 
importance, in favor of the United States. The Tribunal ceded 
to Great Britain the right to make Newfoundland fishing regu- 
lations without the consent of the United States, but with the 
understanding that England must not violate the treatj^ of 1818 ; 
closed to American fishermen on no-treaty coasts all bays ten 
miles or less between headlands ; gave the American fishermen 
the right to enter certain bays for shelter, repairs, wood, or 
water, but forbade the taking, drying, or curing of fish therein ; 
and granted the United States the liberty to take fish in the 
bays, harbors, and creeks on certain parts of the southern and 
western coasts of Newfoundland. 

775. The Alaska- Yukon-Pacific Exposition, An international 
exposition, The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific, was held at Seattle, 
Washington, during the summer of 1909. This fair had a 
world-wide representation and demonstrated the marvelous 
progress of the Alaska and Yukon territories, as well as of the 
whole of western America, and tended to increase the trade of 
the countries that are lapped by the waters of the Pacific. 

776. Woman Suffrage. The question of woman's suffrage 
has been widely discussed in legislatures and conventions and 
is finding favor in public opinion. Many states have granted 
women the right to vote on certain financial questions and in 
the election of school officers. In some states, chiefly the 
mountain states where women are fewer in number than men, 
woman suffrage is in highest favor. In Colorado, Idaho, Utah, 
Wyoming, Arizona, California, Illinois, Kansas, Oregon, and 
Washington women may vote at various elections. The right of 
woman 's suffrage is based chiefly on the argument that women 
pay their taxes and, as intelligent Americans, are as deeply 
interested as men in school, financial, and political questions. 



592 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



777. Vacancy in the Chief Judiciary. In 1910 the United 
States mourned the death of Melville W. Fuller, who had been 

Chief Justice of the 
' '" '^"'^' "^ United States Su- 

p r e m e C o u r t for 
twenty-two years. 
Edward D. White, a 
Catholic, was ap- 
pointed his successor 
— the second instance 
in American history 
in which a Catholic 
has filled that exalted 
' position. Chief Jus- 
tice White was born 
in Louisiana in 1845, 
and educated at 
Mount St. Mary's, 
Maryland, at the Jes- 
uit College, New Or- 
leans, and at George- 
town University. He 
was elected Justice of 
the Louisiana Supreme Court in 1878 and United States Senator, 
in 1891. In 1894 he was appointed Justice of the United States 
Supreme Court by President Cleveland and in 1910 elevated 
to the Chief Justiceship by President Taft. 

778. Two New States. New Mexico and Arizona were ad- 
mitted (1911) to the Union as the forty -seventh and the forty- 
eighth state. 

779. A Great Disaster. One of the most appalling disasters 
in the history of ocean traffic occurred off the Newfoundland 
banks (April, 1912). The steamer Titanic of the White Star 
Line, the most gigantic passenger ship ever afloat, was making 
its first voyage across the Atlantic from Southampton to New 




CHIEF JUSTICE WHITE 



WILLIAM H. TAFT'S ADMINISTRATION 593 

York. While advaiiciug at the high speed of twenty-one knots 
an hour, it crashed into an iceberg which ripped off the heavy 
steel plates from bow to midship. The water gradually filled 
the compartments and after some hours the great vessel, with 
1347 men, 103 women and 53 children, sank to the bottom of 
the Atlantic. 

A touching incident is related of Rev. J. Peruschitz, 0. S. B., 
and two Catholic priests on board. While the steamer was 
sinking, these priests were busy consoling and absolving their 
fellow Catholics gathered around them and all went down 
reciting the rosary alternately. 

780. Destructive Floods. The flow of water from heavy 
rains and the melting of snows on the Rocky and Alleghany 
Mountains had so swollen the lower course of the Mississippi 
as to cause destructive floods (1912). Hundreds of lives and 
millions of dollars' worth of property were destroyed and 
thousands of persons rendered homeless. 

781. Three New Cardinals. An event of particular interest 
to the Catholics of the United States was the creation (Novem- 
ber, 1911) of three American Cardinals — Diomede Falconio, 
Apostolic delegate at Washington; John Farley, Archbishop 
of New York; and William 'Council, Archbishop of Boston. 
On the day appointed, the three cardinals elect repaired to 
the apostolic palace in Rome, where His Holiness Pius X con- 
ferred upon them the red hat, the emblem of the singular 
dignity of the cardinalate. The ceremonies over, each cardinal 
was assigned his titular church in Rome. The Holy Father 
expressed to the newly appointed American cardinals, his recog- 
nition of the loyalty of his American children, and his gratifica- 
tion at the growth of the Catholic Church in the American 
Republic. 

782. The Campaign of 1912. The long and exciting cam- 
paign of 1912 was marked, more than any other in our recent 
history, b}^ bitter personalities between the popular leaders 
of the Republican party. The Republicans in their National 



594 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Convention at Chicago nominated William Howard Taft of 
Ohio for a second term in the White House ; the Democrats 
at Baltimore chose Woodrow Wilson of New Jersey as their 
candidate for the presidency. A sudden split in the Repub- 
lican party during the convention caused the formation of a 
new party. This party called itself the Progressive party and 
nominated Theodore Roosevelt as its candidate. 



596 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

785. The Underwood Tariff. Many supporters of the Demo- 
cratic platform attributed tJie high cost of living to high tariff 
rates ; accordingly, Representative Underwood introduced a 
bill proposing a reduction of the Payne-Aldrich Tariff. After 
many long and hot debates, the measure finally passed both 
houses and was signed (1913) by President Wilson. The Un- 
derwood Tariff abolished all duties on meats, fish, dairy prod- 
ucts, potatoes, coal, iron ore, lumber, many classes of farm 
and office machinery, and raw wool. It reduced nearly two- 
thirds of the tariff on woolen clothing and one-third on cotton 
clothing, provided for free sugar in 1916, and for a general re- 
duction on all important articles in general use. 

786. The Sixteenth Amendment — Income Tax. The proposed 
Sixteenth Amendment to the Constitution was ratified (1913) 
by the necessary three-fourths of all the state legislatures. 
This amendment empowered Congress to lay and collect taxes 
on incomes without apportionment among the several states, 
and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

In accordance with this Sixteenth Amendment, Congress 
enacted a law providing for an income tax, by which every 
person in the United States and every American citizen abroad 
must pay a tax of at least one per cent on his or her yearly 
income, if it amounts to more than four thousand dollars. If 
the income is above twenty thousand dollars, the tax is two 
per cent; and there are higher rates for still larger incomes. 

787. The Administration Currency Bill, also called the 
Owens-Glass Bill, enacted in 1913, provides for a system of 
large regional reserve banks — not less than eight nor more 
than twelve, formed by a joining together of national banks — 
and for the establishment of branch banks where business 
requires it. It also creates a federal reserve board of seven 
members, consisting of four men from the banks and three 
federal officers (Secretary of the Treasury, Secretary of Agri- 
culture, and Comptroller of Currency). The most important 
feature, the so-called ''re-discount provision," is that, when 



wooDROw Wilson's administration 591 

necessary, any bank can turn over to the regional banks, notei 
of business men who have borrowed money from it, and ge' 
fifty per cent of their face value in new paper money. Tin 
new notes are to be guaranteed by the local bank and th( 
United States, and protected by a gold reserve of forty pei 
cent to insure absolute safety. The whole idea is to preven' 
panics, by making capital and credit flow where it is needec 
and not letting it pile up uselessly where it is not needed. 

788. The Seventeenth Amendment. The Seventeenth Amend 
ment to the Constitution, ratified (1913) by the necessarj 
three-fourths of all the states, requires that United States Sen 
ators be elected directly by the people of the states, not bj 
the legislatures. 

789. The Parcel Post. A parcel post provision had been en 
acted and had gone into effect during President Taft's admin 
istration (1913). It provided that packages weighing clever 
pounds or less could be sent by mail at very low rates. Th( 
provision was, some months later, modified b}^ raising tht 
limit of weight to twenty pounds in the first two zones, anc 
reducing the rate. During President Wilson's administratior 
it was furthermore ordered that, beginning January 1, 1914 
packages of fifty pounds be carried, not more than one hun 
dred and fifty miles, and that books be admitted to the Parce' 
Post. 

790. The Tolls Repeal Bill, According to the Hay-Paunce 
fote Treaty with England, the Panama Canal was to be free 
and open to the vessels of connnerce and war of all nations 
on terms of entire equality. This provision of the treaty was 
apparently violated by a subsequent act of Congress whicl 
exempted from the payment of tolls vessels engaged in the 
coastwise trade of the United States. After many long and 
heated discussions in Congress, the Tolls Repeal Bill, which was 
strongly supported by President Wilson, was finally passec 
(1914), repealing this part of the Panama Canal Tolls Law 
The passage of this law was highly gratifying to Great Britain 



598 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

who declared it her duty to pay a tribute of respect to the 
statesman who did not hesitate to risk his personal popularity 
and political prestige in doing what he believed to be right 
and just. 

791. United States Builds Alaskan Railroad. A law provid- 
ing for building one thousand miles of government-owned 
railroad in Alaska was enacted (1914), empowering the Presi- 
dent to select the route and have entire control of the work. 
The law is of more than ordinary importance and may eventu- 
ally lead either to government ownership or to very rigorous 
government supervision of railroads and other transportation 
lines. 

792. Our Warships Become Schools. At the suggestion of 
Secretary of the Navy Daniels, our w'arships have become 
schools (1914) where the enlisted men and non-commissioned 
officers are utilizing their leisure hours during time of peace 
in acquiring an education. The teaching, in the main, is done 
by the officers who themselves have been educated at the 
nation's expense. The courses include not only those studies 
which are of special use on shipboard, but also those which 
give general culture and vocational training. 

793. Trouble With Mexico. As. was previously stated, the 
people of Mexico rose in rebellion (1911) at the re-election 
of President Diaz, who, for thirty years, had ruled the country 
like a monarch, and the rebellion ended only with his resig- 
nation. Scarcely had his successor, Madero, the leader of the 
revolutionists, entered upon the presidential office when a new 
insurrection broke out. General Huerta and others who had 
been supporting Madero, suddenly turned their troops against 
him, forced him to resign, and finally murdered Mm. Huerta 
now became provisional governor, but President Wilson re- 
fused to recognize this government, on the principle that the 
United States should not recognize governments in this hem- 
isphere that rest upon nothing but violence and personal ambi- 
tion. While a fierce revolution against Huerta raged in north- 



wooDRow Wilson's administrxVtion 599 

ern Mexico, several American sailors in a motor boat, flying 
the American flag, strayed beyond the Mexican border and 
were captured by the Mexicans. Although they were released 
after a short time, the incident was considered an insult to 
the American flag, and an apology and a salute of twenty-one 
guns for the flag were demanded. When Mexico refused to 
comply with this demand, the entire Atlantic fleet of the United 
States Navy was ordered to Mexican ports, wdiile Congress 
empowered the President to use the Army, the Navy, and the 
Treasury as he might deem best for upholding the dignity and 
honor of the nation. The President, however, took a firm 
stand against any declaration of war, and stated that this 
Mexican afi^air need not culminate in war if handled with 
firmness. Delay was fast becoming dangerous, for a German 
steamer loaded with munitions of war and consigned to the 
Mexican government arrived in the harbor of Vera Cruz. The 
President now ordered the seizure of the customhouse at Vera 
Cruz to prevent the German steamer from landing her dan- 
gerous cargo, and the customhouse was taken without opposi- 
tion. A slight encounter, however, followed later during which 
several were killed and wounded on both sides. 

At this important crisis envoys from Argentina, Brazil, and 
Chile (A. B. C. envoys) offered to bring about a peaceful 
adjustment of matters. Both the United States and the Huerta 
government of Mexico agreed to desist from further action and 
send representatives to meet the A. B. C. envoys at Niagara 
Falls, Canada. The result was a final protocol (1914), demand- 
ing the resignation of Huerta and the withdrawal of American 
troops from Vera Cruz. The insult to our flag, the alleged 
reason for the occupation of Vera Cruz, was condoned, and 
liostilities were considered at an end. 

794. Cape Cod Canal. A canal, under serious consideration 
even in Colonial days, connecting Buzzard's Bay and Massachu- 
setts Bay, was opened to conunerce (1914). It is thirteen miles 
in length and its construction cost twelve million dollars. By 



600 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



its use the water route between Boston and New York is short- 
ened by seventy miles and coastwise vessels can now avoid the 
dangerous passage around Cape Cod. 

795. European War— Declaration of Neutrality. The gen- 
eral peace of Europe, for a long time so delicately balanced, 




POPE PIUS X 



was suddenly overthrown (1914) by the assassination in Servia 
of Archduke Ferdinand, the heir apparent to the Austrian 
throne, and the Duchess. Austria-Hungary declared war 
against Servia, and was supported by her ally, Germany. Rus- 
sia took sides with Servia, and was supported by France and 
England, which countries, together with Russia, form the 



wooDEOw Wilson's administration 601 

''Triple Entente." The war situation in Europe led President 
Wilson to issue a declaration of neutrality, in which he ap- 
pealed to the American people and warned them against any 
breach of neutrality springing out of partisanship. 

796. Death of Pope Pius X. In the midst of the preparations 
for tlie great continental war, the illustrious Pope Pius X died 
(August 20, 1914) with the words, "Together in one — all 
things in Christ," on his lips. He was in the eightieth year of 
his life and the twelfth of his pontificate. To see millions of 
his children, the heirs of nineteen centuries of Christianity, 
entering upon war hastened the Holy Father's end. 

No Pope of modern times has effected so many and salutary 
changes in the internal government of the Church. His de- 
crees on frequent communions and on the first communion 
of children will immortalize the great Pius X as the ''Pope of 
the People, ' ' and the ' ' Pope of the Blessed Sacrament ; ' ' while 
his last message to Christendom, which was a prayer and an 
appeal for peace, will proclaim him to future generations as 
the "Pope of Peace." 

797. Election of Benedict XV. The illustrious Pius X was 
laid to rest but a short time when the assembled conclave of 
Cardinals elected (August 31) as his successor Cardinal della 
Chiesa, the present Pope Benedict XV. The new pontiff's first 
apostolic benediction sent to any foreign country was for 
America. He expressed the hope that our country's attitude 
in favor of peace, together with the prayers raised to the 
Almighty throughout the world, would procure peace for the 
warring nations of Europe. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 

1865-1914 

Andrew Johnson's Admmistration (1865-1869) — Republican.i 

1865. Andrew Johnson is inaugurated as the seventeenth!! 
President. 

Reconstruction of the southern states is begun. 

The Freedman's Bureau Bill is passed (March). 

President Johnson issues an Amnesty Proclamation 

(May). 

The Thirteenth Amendment is adopted (December). 

1866. The Civil Rights Bill is passed (March). 

The Atlantic cable is successfully laid (June). 
The Second Plenary Council meets at Baltimore. 

1867. Nebraska is admitted to the Union as the thirty- 
seventh state (March). 

The Tenure of Office Bill is passed (March). 

The United States purchases Alaska from Russia, 

Maximilian is shot in Mexico (June). 

The Reconstruction Act is passed over Johnson's veto. 

1868. President Johnson is impeached by the House of Rep- 
resentatives, but the trial ends in his acquittal. 

The Fourteenth Amendment is adopted (July). 
Burlingame negotiates a treaty with China. 
Carpet-bag governments established in the South. 
Ulysses S. Grant's Administration (1869-1877) — Republican. 

1869. Ulysses S. Grant is inaugurated as the eighteenth Presi- 
dent. 

The Union Pacific Railroad is completed (May). 

Edwin M. Stanton dies (December). 

The Ku Klux Klan society is organized in the South. 

1870. The Fifteenth Amendment is adopted (March). 

602 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 608 

Generals Lee and Thomas and Admiral Farragut die. 

1871. Great fires occur in Chicago. Forest fires lay waste 
parts of Wisconsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. 

All the states are again represented in Congress. 

1872. The Credit Mobilier, Tweed Ring, Whiskey Ring, and 
other political scandals occur. 

The Alabama difficulty is settled. 

A destructive fire breaks out in Boston (November). 

President Grant is re-elected. 

1873. A great financial panic disturbs the country. 
The Modoc Indians are subdued. 

A law is passed demonetizing silver. 

1875. Archbishop McCloskey is created cardinal (April). 
Ex-president Johnson dies. 

1876. The centennial of the Declaration of Independence is 
celebrated in Philadelphia (May — November). 
Colorado admitted as the' thirty-eighth state (August). 
General Custer's force slaughtered by Sioux Indians. 

Rutherford B. Hayes's Administration (1877-1881)— Repub- 
lican. 

1877. Rutherford B. Hayes is inaugurated as the nineteenth 
President. 

General Grant starts on his tour around the world. 
War occurs with the Nez Perces Indians of Idaho. 

1878. The yellow fever epidemic rages in the South. 
William Cullen Bryant, poet and journalist, dies. 
The Bland-Allison Bill is passed by Congress. 
The electric light is invented by Edison. 

Pope Pius IX dies and is succeeded by Leo XIII. 

1879. Resumption of Specie Payment goes into effect. 
Hayes vetoes the Chinese immigration bill. 

Garfield's and Arthur's Administrations (1881-1885)— Re- 
publicans. 
1881. James A. Garfield is inaugurated as the twentieth Presi- 
dent. 



604 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

The President is shot by Charles Guiteau (July 2) and I 
dies (September 19). 

Vice-president Chester A. Arthur is formally inaugu- 
rated as the twenty-first President. 
The nation celebrates the Yorktown centennial. 

1882. Congress passes an act restricting Chinese immigration 
for ten years. 

1883. The Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act is passed. 
Letter postage is reduced to two cents. 

1884. A great cotton exposition is opened at New Orleans. 
The Third Plenary Council meets at Baltimore. 

Grover Cleveland's Administration (1885-1889) — Democratic. 

1885. Grover Cleveland is inaugurated as the twenty-second 
President. 

Venerable Cardinal McCloskey, Ex-president Grant, 
General McClellan, and Vice-president Hendricks die.- 

1886. Archbishop Gibbons is created cardinal. 
The Presidential Succession Bill is enacted. 

The Statue of Liberty is erected in New York Harbor. 

1887. Samuel J. Tilden dies. 

The Interstate Commerce Law is passed. 
The Tenure of Office Act is repealed. 
Anarchists cause serious riots in Chicago. 

1888. Australian Ballot System adopted in many states. 

Benjamin Harrison's Administration (1889-1893) — Repub-' 
lican. 

1889. Benjamin Harrison is inaugurated as the twenty-third 
President. 

Oklahoma Territory is opened to settlers (April). 
The nation celebrates the centennial of the beginning 
of our government under the Constitution and of Wash- 
ington's inauguration (April). 

A disastrous flood occurs at Johnstown, Pennsylvania. 
The Catholic Church celebrates the hundredth anniver- 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 605 

sary of the establishment of the hierarchy (November). 
North Dakota, South Dakota, Montana, and Washing- 
ton are admitted to the Union (November). 
The Pan-American Congress assembles in Washington. 
An insurrection occurs in the Samoan Islands. 

1890. The Dependent Pension Bill is passed. 
The McKinley Tariff is. enacted. 

The Silver Coinage Act is passed. 
! Idaho and Wyoming are admitted to the Union (July). 

The Sioux Indians are defeated in a bloody battle with 
the United States troops; Sitting Bull is killed. 

1891. Congress amends the Immigration Laws. 

1892. The Geary Act is passed by Congress. 
Labor strikes occur in Pennsylvania. 

Grover Cleveland's Administration (1893-1897) — Democratic. 

1893. Grover Cleveland is inaugurated as the twenty-fourth 
President. 

The Hawaiians rebel against their queen. 

A Seal Fishery Treaty is negotiated with England. 

The Sherman Act is repealed. 
I The Wilson Tariff Act is passed. 

! The World's Columbian Exposition is held in Chicago. 

1894. The Hawaiian Islands are organized into an independ- 
ent republic. 

1895. The Venezuelan difficulty is settled by arbitration. 

1896. Utah is admitted to the Union as the forty-fifth state. 



William McKinley's Administration (1897-1901)— Repub- 
lican. 

897. William McKinley is inaugurated as the twenty -fifth 
President. 

The Dingley Tariff Bill becomes a law (July). 
Grant's tomb is dedicated at Riverside Park, New York 
The Congressional library building is opened. 



606 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

1898. Spain grants self-government to Cuba and Porto Rico 
(January), 

The Maine is blown up in Havana harbor (February). 
Congress declares war to exist with Spain (April 25). 
McKinley calls for volunteers. 
Cuba is blockaded by the American fleet. 
General Shafter wins the battle of El Caney. 
Lieutenant Hobson sinks the Merrimac (June). 
Commodore Schley destroys Cervera's fleet. 
The Spanish commander, Toral, surrenders Santiago 
to the Americans (July). 
General Miles captures Porto Rico (July). 
Admiral Dewey wins the battle of Manila (May 1). 
. A treaty of peace is signed at Paris (December 10). 
Porto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines are ceded to the 
United States. 

The Hawaiian Islands are annexed by the United States. 
The Trans-Mississippi Exposition is held at Omaha (June 
— November). 

1899. An insurrection occurs in the Philippines. 

The Samoan difficulty is settled and the United States 
acquires Tutuila. 

The war in the Philippines is ended. 
The United States sends commissioners to the World's 
Peace Conference at The Hagiie. 
Vice-president Hobart dies. 
■1900. The Boxer uprising occurs in China. 

United States secures the "Open-Door" with China. 
Washington celebrates its one-hundredth birthday as 
the capital of the United States. 
McKinley is re-elected (November). 

1901. President McKinley is assassinated (September 6). 
Vice-president Roosevelt assumes the presidential office, 

1902, Irrigation laws are passed for the reclamation of west- 
ern arid lands. 



CHRONOLOGICAL REVIEW 607 

The United States acquires the islands of St. Thomas, 
St. Croix, and St. John. 

1903. A coal strike occurs in Pennsylvania. 
The Trans-Pacific cable is laid. 

The Alaskan boundary dispute is settled. 

Pope Leo XIII dies (July 20) and Pius X is electcnl his 

successor (August 4). 

1904. The Louisiana Purchase Exposition is held at St. Louis. 
Work on Panama canal begun by United States. 

Theodore Roosevelt's Administration (1905-1909) — Repub- 
lican. 

1905. Theodore Roosevelt is inaugurated as the twenty-sixth 
President. 

Lewis and Clark Exposition held at Portland, Oregon. 
A treaty between Russia and Japan is negotiated at 
Portsmouth, New Hampshire. 

1906. Cuban affairs are adjusted. 

San Francisco is devastated by an earthquake. 

1907. A financial panic occurs. 

The Second Peace Conference convenes at The Hague. 
American battleship fleet circumnavigates globe. 

1908. Provisions are made for the conservation of our natural 
resources. 

Ex-president Cleveland dies. 

William H. Taft's Administration (1909-1913)— Republican. 

1909. William H. Taft is inaugurated as the twenty-seventh 
President. 

Robert E. Peary discovers the North Pole (April). 
The Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition is celebrated at 
Seattle, Washington (June — November). 
The Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill is passed (August). 

1910. Postal Savings Banks are established. 

The Hague Tribunal settles the Newfoundland fishing 
question. 



608 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Chief Justice Fuller dies (July), and Edward D. White 

becomes his successor. 

War with Mexico is imminent. 

1911. A new treaty is negotiated with Japan (March). 
Archbishops Falconio, Farley, and O'Connell are cre- 
ated cardinals. 

New Mexico and Arizona are admitted to the Union. 
Amundsen discovers the South Pole (December). 

1912. Destructive floods occur in the lower Mississippi. 
The Titanic disaster occurs. 

Woodrow Wilson's Administration (1913- ) — Democrat. 

1913. Woodrow Wilson is inaugurated as the twenty-eighth 
President. 

The Sixty-third Congress meets in extra session. 
The UnderAvood Tariff Measure is enacted. 
Congress passes Sixteenth and Seventeenth Amend- 
ments. 

An Income Tax Law is passed. 
A New Currency Bill goes into effect. 
The Parcel Post is established. 

1914. A Treaty with Colombia is negotiated. 
The Tolls Repeal Bill is passed. 
United States builds Alaskan railroad. 
Trouble with Mexico is adjusted. 

Our war ships become schools. 
Cape Cod Canal is completed. 

President Wilson makes his famous Declaration of Neu- 
trality. 

Pope Pius X dies and Benedict XV is elected his suc- 
cessor. 



THE APPENDIX 

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 

111 Oougress, July 4, 1776. 

The following declaration of principles was agreed to on July 4, 1776, 
and is thus recorded in the Journal of Congress for that day: 

Agreeably to the order of the day, the Congress resolved itself into a com- 
mittee of the whole to take into their further consideration the Declaration ; 
and, after some time, the president resumed the chair, and Mr. Harrison le- 
ported that the committee have agreed to a Declaration, which they desired 
him to report. The Declaration being read, was agreed to as follows: 

THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN 
UNITED STATES OF AMERICA 

When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people 
to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with another, and 
to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to 
which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect 
to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which 
impel them to the separation. 

We hold these truths to be self-evident: That all men are created equal; 
that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that 
among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness; that, to secure 
these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just 
powers from the consent of the governed; that, whenever any form of gov- 
ernment becomes destructive of these ends, it is right of the people to alter 
or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on 
such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall 
seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will 
dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light 
and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that man- 
kind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right 
themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But 
when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same 
object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their 
right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new 
guards for their future security. Such has been the patient sufferance of 
these colonies; and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter 
their former systems of government. The history of the present king of 

609 



610 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having 
in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. 
To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world. 

1. He has refused his assent to laws, the most wholesome and necessary 
for the jiublic good. 

2. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and press- 
ing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be 
obtained; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. 

3. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large 
districts of people unless those people would relinquish the right of repre- 
sentation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable 
to tyrants only. 

4. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfort- 
able, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole 
purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. 

5. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with 
manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. 

6. He has refused for a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause 
others to be elected; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihila- 
tion, have returned to the people at large for their exercise; the state re- 
maining, in the "meantime, exposed to all the dangers of invasions from 
without and convulsions within. 

7. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states; for that 
purpose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreigners ; refusing to 
pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions 
of new appropriations of lands. 

8. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent 
to laws for establishing judiciary powers. 

9. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of 
their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. 

10. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of 
officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. 

11. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without 
the consent of our legislatures. 

12. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior 
to, the civil power. 

13. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign 
to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to 
their acts of pretended legislation : 

a. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us. 

b. For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders 

which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states. 



APPENDIX 611 

e. For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world. 
d. For imposing taxes on us without our consent. 

0. For dei^riving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury. 

f. For transjjorting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offenses. 

g. For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring prov- 

ince, establishing therein an arbitrary government and enlarging 
its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instru- 
ment for introducing the same absolute rule into these colonies. 

h. For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and 
altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments. 

i. For suspending our own legislature and declaring themselves invested 
with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. 

14. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his pro- 
tection, and waging war against us. 

15. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and 
destroyed the lives of our people. 

16. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries 
to complete the works of deatli, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with 
circumstances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbar- 
ous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. 

17. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high 
seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their 
friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. 

18. He has excited the domestic insurrections amongst us, and has en- 
deavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian 
savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of 
all ages, sexes and conditions. 

In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the 
most humble terms: our repeated petitions have been answered only by re- 
peated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which 
may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. 

Nor have we been wanting in our attentions to our British brethren. We 
have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to 
extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the 
circumstances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed 
to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them by the 
ties of our common kindred to disavow these usurpations, which would in- 
evitably interrupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been 
deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
acquiesce in the necessity which denounces our separation, and hold them, as 
we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. 



612 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



We therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in 
fjeneral Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world 
for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority 
of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these 
united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states; 
that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all 
political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and 
ought to be, totally dissolved; and that as free and independent states, they 
have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish 
commerce, and do all other acts and things which independent states may 
of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance 
on the protection of Divine Providence, we mutually jjledge to each other 
our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. 

The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and signed 
by the following members: 



New Hampshire 
Josiah Bartlett 
William Whipple 
Matthew Thornton 

Massachusetts Bat 
Samuel Adams 
John Adams 
Robert Treat Paine 
Elbridge Gerry 
John Hart 
Abraham Clark 

Pennsylvanja 
Robert Morris 
Benjamin Rush 
Benjamin Franklin 
John Morton 
George Clymer 
James Smith 
George Taylor 
James Wilson 
George Ross 

Delaware 
Caesar Rodney 
George Read 



Rhode Island 

Stephen Hopkins 
William Ellery 

Connecticut 

Roger Sherman 
Samuel Huntington 
William Williams 
Oliver Wolcott 
Thomas M'Kean 

Maryland 

Samuel Chase 
William Paca 
Thomas Stone 
Charles Carroll of Car- 
rollton 

Virginia 

George Wythe 
Richard Henry Lee 
Thomas Jefferson 
Benjamin Harrison 
Thomas Nelson, Jr. 
Francis Lightfoot Lee 
Carter Braxton 



John Hancock. 

New York 

William Floyd 
Philip Livingston 
Francis Lewis 
Lewis Morris 

New Jersey 

Richard Stockton 
John Witherspoon 
Francis Hopkinson 

North Carolina 

William Hooper 
Joseph Hewes 
John Penn 

South Carolina 

Edward Rutledge 
Thomas Heyward, Jr. 
Thomas Lynch, Jr. 
Arthur Middleton 

Georgia 

Button Gwinnett 
Lyman Hall 
George Walton 



APPENDIX 613 



THE PROVISIONS OF THE CONSTITUTION OUTLINED 

Steps leading to the adoption of the Coustitution : 

1. The New England Confederacy. 

2. The Albany Plan. 

3. The Stamp Act Congress. 

4. The Committees of Correspondence. 

5. The First Continental Congress. 

6. The Declaration of Independence. 

7. The Adoption of the Articles of Confederation. 

8. The Annapolis Convention, 

9. The Constitutional Convention at Philadelphia, 

Eelative to the United States Government, the Constitution provides for: 

1. The Legislative Department. 
a. House of Representatives. 
h. Senate. 

2. The Executive Department. 
President. 

3. The Judicial Department. 
a. Federal Judges. 

ft. Federal Courts. 

Eelative to the House of Eepresentatives, the Constitution provides for: 

1. The manner of electing the members. 
By the people of the several states. 

2. The term of office. 
Two years. 

3. The qualifications of members. 
a. Twenty-five years old. 

h. A citizen of the United States for seven years, 
c. A resident of the state for which chosen. 

4. The distribution of members. *" 

Among the states according to the number of inhabitants (From 
1910-1920 the membership of the House of Eepresentatives is 433 and 
the unit of representation is 212,032). 

5. The presiding officer of the House. 
Members elect the Speaker. 

6. The power to impeach Federal officers. 

7. The Census. 



614 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

Kelative to the Senate, the Constitution provides for: 

1. The number of members. 
Two from each state. 

2. The manner of election. 
By popular vote. 

3. The term of office. 
Six years. 

4. The qualifications of members. 
a. Thirty years of age. 

h. A citizen of the United States for nine years. 
c. A resident of the state for vrhieh elected. 

5. The presiding officer. 

u. Vice-president of the United States. 

6. In absence of a Vice-president, a president pro tempore elected 

by the Senate. 

6. The power to act as a court to try impeachments brought by the 
House of Representatives. 

Relative to Congress as a whole the Constitution provides: 

1. For the time of meeting. 

Each year on the first Monday of December. 

2. For the quorum. 
Majority. 

3. That each house determine its rule of procedure. 

4. That each house keep a journal. 

5. That neither house adjourn for more than three days witiiout the 
consent of the other. 

6. For the method of passing laws. 

Congress has power : 

1. To lay taxes, 

2. To borrow money. 

3. To regulate commerce. 

4. To pass laws regulating — 

a. The naturalization of foreigners. 
h. Bankruptcy. 

5. To coin money. 

6. To fix the standard of weights and measures. 

7. To establish post-offices. 

8. To provide for patents and copyrights. 

9. To declare war. 

10. To raise and support armies. 



APPENDIX 615 

11. To maintain a navy. 

12. To provide for a standing; army. 

13. To admit new states. 

14. To pass laws necessary to carry out the above powers. 

Eelative to the President the Constitution provides for: 

1. The term of office. 
Four years. 

2. The manner of election. 

By presidential electors chosen by the peojile of the several states. 

3. The qualifications. 

a. A natural born citizen of the United States. 

6. Thirty-five years old. 

c. Fourteen years residence within the United States. 

4. The oath of office. 

To support the Constitution of the United States. 

The President's powers: 

1. He is commander-in-chief of: 
a. The Army. 

h. The Navy. 

c. The Militia in service of the United States. 

2. He may grant reprieves and jiardons. 

3. With the consent of the Senate he 
o. Makes treaties. 

h. Appoints ambassadors, ministers, consuls, Federal judges. 

The President's chief duties are: 

1. To send or bring messages to Congress. 

2. To summon extra sessions of Congress whenever lie deems it necessary, 

3. To receive ambassadors. 

4. To execute, or enforce, the laws. 

Eolative to the Federal Judges the Constitution provides for: 

1. Their appointment. 

By the President witii the consent of the Senate. 

2. Their membership. 
Fixed by Congress. 

3. Their term of office. 
During good behavior. 

Relative to the Federal courts, the Constitution provides for: 
1. One Supreme Court. 
•2. Inferior courts to be established by Congress. 



616 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

PEEAMBLE 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquility, provide for the com- 
mon defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of lib- 
erty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitu- 
tion for the United States of America. 



ARTICLE I 

THE LEGISLATIVE DEPARTMENT 

The Congress: Its Divisions and Powers 

Section 1. All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a 
Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House 
of Representatives. ' 

The House: Its Composition and Powers 

Sec. 2. The House of Representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the peojde of the several states, and the elect- 
ors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the 
most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained to the 
age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in 
which he shall be chosen. 

(Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several 
states which may be included within this Union, according to their respect- 
ive numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of 
free persons, including tiiose bound to service for a term of years, and ex- 
cluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons.) The actual 
enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the 
Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten 
years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of repre- 
sentatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state 
shall have at least one representative; and until such enumeration shall be 
made the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massa- 



APPENDIX 617 

chusetts, eight; Ehode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecti- 
cut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, 
one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, 
five; and Georgia, three. 

When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the execu- 
tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 

The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other offi- 
cers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

The Senate: Its Composition and Powers 

Sec. 3. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two sen- 
ators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 

Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first 
election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. 
The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expira- 
tion of the second year; of the second class, at the expiration of the 
fourth year; of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that 
one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by 
resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, 
the executive thereof may make temporary appointments until the next 
meeting of the legislature, which shall fill such vacancies. 

No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of 
thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who 
shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall 
be chosen. 

The Vice-president of the United States shall be president of the Sen- 
ate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro 
tempore, in the absence of the Vice-president, or when he shall exercise 
the office of President of the United States. 

The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments; when sit- 
ting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the Presi- 
dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside; and no 
person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the 
members present. 

Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to re- 
moval from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of 
honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party convicted 
shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, 
and punishment according to law. 



618 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Congressional Elections and Bate of Assembling 

Sec. 4. The times, places, and manner of liolding elections for senators 
and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 
thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by law, make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meet- 
ing shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by law 
appoint a different day. 

Bides of Procedure of Senate and House 

Sec, 5. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and quali- 
fications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a 
quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to 
day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, 
in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 

Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- 
bers for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, 
expel a member. 

Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to 
time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment 
require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house on 
any question shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on 
the journal. 

Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, without the consent 
of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place 
than that in wliich the two houses shall be sitting. 

Compensation and Privileges of Memters 

See. 6. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for 
their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of 
the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, and 
breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at 
the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from 
the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they shall not be 
questioned in any other place. 

No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was 
elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United 
States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall 
have been increased, during such time ; and no person holding any office 
under the United States shall be a member of either house during his 
continuance in office. 



APPENDIX 619 

Methods of Legislation 

Sec. 7. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of 
Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments 
as on other bills. 

Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and 
'the Senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the President of 
the United States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall 
return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have orig- 
inated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and pro- 
ceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two-thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if 
approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all 
such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, 
and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be 
entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not 
be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it 
shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner 
as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their adjouinment prevent 
its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the Senate 
and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of 
adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States; 
and before the same shall take effect, shall be. approved by him, or being 
disapproved by him, shall be repassed liy two-thirds of the Senate and House 
of Representatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in tlie 
case of a bill. 

Powers Vest'^d in Congress 

Sec. 8. The Congress shall have power: 

To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts 
and provide for the common defenses and general welfare of the United 
States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout 
the United States; 

To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

To regulate commerce with foreign nations and among the several states, 
and with the Indian tribes; 

To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the 
subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and 
fix the standard of weights and measures; 



620 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

To provide for the puaishment of oounterfeitiug the securities and cur- 
rent coin of the United States; 

To establish post offices and post roads; 

To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for lim- 
ited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective 
writings and discoveries ; 

To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 

To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, 
and offenses against the law of nations; 

To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules 
concerning captures on land and water; 

To raise and support armies, but no aj^propriation of money to that 
use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 

To provide and maintain a navy ; 

To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 
forces ; 

To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, 
suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for 
governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the 
United States, reserving to the states, respectively, the appointment of the 
officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline 
prescribed by Congress ; 

To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such dis- 
trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government 
of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- 
chased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same 
shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
other needful buildings ; and — 

To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into 
execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Consti- 
tution in the government of the United States, or in any department or 
officer thereof. 

Limits to Powers of the Federal Government 

Sec. 9. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by 
the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but 
a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dol- 
lars for each person. 



APPENDIX 621 

The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless 
when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may recjuire it. 

No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

No capitation or other direct tax shall be laitl, unless in proportion to the 
census or enumeration herein before directed to be taken. 

No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 

No preference shall be given by any regulation -of conmierce or revenue 
to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to, 
or from, one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 

No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of ai^- 
propriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the 
receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States. And no person 
holding any oflSce of profit or trust under them shall, without the consent 
of the Congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title, of any 
kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

Limits to Powers of the States 

See. 10. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; 
grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; 
make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; 
pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obliga- 
tion of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

No state shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or 
duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and 
imjiosts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use 
of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject 
to the revision and control of the Congress. 

No state shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of ton- 
nage, keep troops, or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agree- 
ment or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage 
in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not 
admit of delay. 

AETICLE II 

THE EXECUTIVE DEPARTMENT 

The Executive Officers; the Electoral College 

Section 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the 
United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four 



622 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

years, and, together with the Vice-president, chosen for tlie same term, 
be elected, as follows: 

Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may 
direct, a number of electors, e(|ual to the whole number of senators and 
representatives to which the state may be entitled in the Congress; but 
no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit 
under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[ The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot for 
two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same 
state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons voted 
for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the Senate. , The president of the 
Senate shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Eepresentatives, 
open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person 
having the greatest number of votes shall be the President, if such number 
be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if there be 
more than one who have such majority, and have an eijual number of 
votes, then the House of Eepresentatives shall immediately choose by 
ballot one of them for President; and if no person have a majority, then 
from the five highest on the list the said House shall, in like manner, choose 
the President. But in choosing the President the votes shall be taken by 
states, the representation from each state having one vote; a quorum for 
this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In 
every case, after the choice of the President, the person having the great- 
est number of votes of the electors shall be the Vice-president. But if 
there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the Senate shall 
choose from them by ballot the Vice-president.] 

The Congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the 
day on which they shall give their votes; which day shall be the same 
throughout the United States. 

No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible 
to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible to that 
office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been 
fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

In ease of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, 
resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said 
office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-president, and the Congress may 
by law provide for the ease of removal, death, resignation, or inability, 
both of the President and Vice-president, declaring what officer shall then 



APPENDIX 623 

act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly, until tlic disability 
be removed, or a President shall be elected. 

The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensa- 
tion which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for 
which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that 
period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 

Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following 
oath or affirmation: "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faith- 
fully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the 
best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the 
United States." 

Powers Granted to the President 

Sec. 2. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy 
of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called 
into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, 
in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive departments, 
upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices; and 
he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offenses against 
the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the Senate, 
to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur; and 
he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the Senate 
shall appoint, ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls, judges of 
the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the United States whose ap- 
pointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be estab- 
lished by law; but the Congress may by law vest the appointment of such 
inferior offices as they think proper in the President alone, in the courts 
of law, or in the heads of departments. 

The President shall have power to fill up vacancies that may happen 
during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire 
at the end of their next session. 

The President's Duties 

Sec. 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such meas- 
ures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary 
occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in ease of disagree- 
ment between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may 
adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall receive am- 
bassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that the laws be 



624 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

faithfully exeeuted, and shall commission all the officers of the United 
States. 

InijK'dchiiK lit of Kxceutivc and Civil Officers 

Sec. 4. The President, Vice-president, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, 
treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 



AETICLE III 

THE JUDICIAL DEPARTMENT 

The Federal Courts — Supreme and Inferior 

Section 1. The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in 
one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the Supreme and 
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at 
stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be 
diminished during their continuance in office. 

Powers and Jurisdiction of the Federal Courts 

Sec. 2. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 
arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affecting 
ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls; to all cases of admiralty 
and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the United States 
shall be a party; to controversies between two or more states; between a 
state and citizens of another state; between citizens of different states; 
between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of differ- 
ent states, and between a state, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, 
citizens, or subjects. 

In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, 
and those in which a state shall be a party, the Supreme Court shall have 
original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, the Supreme 
Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such 
exceptions and under such regulations as the Congress shall luake. 

The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; 
and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes shall have 
been committed ; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall 
be at such place or places as the Congress may by law have directed. 



APPENDIX 625 

Treason: Its Nalnrc and Punishment 

Sec. 3. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort. No jierson shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony 
of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 

The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, 
but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, 
except during the life of the person attainted. 

AETICLE IV 

RELATION OF THE STATE AND FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS 

liccogvition of State Authority 

Section 1. Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the Con- 
gress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, 
and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

Laws Begarding Citisens of the States 

Sec. 2. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and 
immunities of citizens in the several states. 

A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who 
shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the 
executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be 
removed to the state having jurisdiction of the crime. 

No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws therenf, 
escaping into another, shall in consequence of any law or regulation therein, 
be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim 
of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. 

Admission of States and Eegulation of United States Territories 

See. 3. New states may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; 
but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any 
other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more 
states, or parts of states, without the. consent of the legislatures of the 
states concerned as well as of the Congress. 

The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules 
and regulations respecting the territory or other property belonging to 
the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as 
to prejudice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. 



626 . A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

Protection Guaranteed by the Federal Government 

Sec. 4. The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union 
a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against 
invasion; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when 
the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

AETICLE V 

POWER AND METHOD OF AMENDING THE CONSTITUTION 

The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it neces- 
sary, shall propose ameudments to this Constitution, or, on the applica- 
tion of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a con- 
vention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to 
all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when ratified by the 
legislatures of three-fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three- 
fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be pro- 
l^osed by the Congress; provided that no amendment which may be made 
prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner 
affect the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of the first article; 
and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suf- 
frage in the Senate. 

AETICLE YI 

PUBLIC DEBTS; THE SUPREME LAW; OATH OP OFFICE; 
RELIGIOUS TEST PROHIBITED 

All debts contracted and engagements entered into before the adoption 
of this Constitution shall be as valid against the United States under this 
Constitution as under the confederation. 

This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made 
in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under 
the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; 
and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, anything in the Con- 
stitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 

The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members 
of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, 
both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath 
or affirmation to support this Constitution; but no religious test shall 
ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the 
United States. 



APPENDIX 



627 



AETICLE VII 

RATIFICATION AND ESTABLISHMENT OF THE CONSTITUTION 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be sufficient for 
the establishment of this Constitution between the states so ratifying the 
same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, the 
seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven 
hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independence of the United States 
of America the twelfth. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names, 

GEO. WASHINGTON, 



New Hampshire : 
John Langdon 
Nicholas Gilman 

Massachusetts : 

Nathaniel Gorham 
Eufus King 

Connecticut: . 

William Samuel Johnson 
Eoger Sherman 

New York: 

Alexander Hamilton 

New Jersey: 

William Livingston 
David Brearley 
William Paterson 
Jonathan Dayton 

Pennsylvania: 

Benjamin Franklin 
Thomas Mifflin 
Robert Morris 
George Clymer 
Thomas Fitzsimmons 
James Wilson 
Gouveneur Morris 



Deputy from Virginia. 
Delaware : 

George Read 

Gunning Bedford, Jr. 

John Dickinson 

Richard Bassett 

Jacob Broom 
Maryland : 

James McHenry 

Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer 

Daniel Carroll 
Virginia : 

John Blair 

James Madison, Jr. 
North Carolina : 

William Blount 

Richard Dobbs Spaight 

Hugh Williamson 
South Carolina: 

John Rutledge 

Charles Pinckney 

Charles Cotesworth Pinckney 

Pierce Butler 
Georgia : 

William Few 

Abraham Baldwin 



Attest: WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. 



628 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

AMENDMENTS 

Articles in addition to, and amendments of, the (Jonstitution of tlie 
United States of America, proposed by Congress, and ratified by the legis- 
latures of the several states pursuant of the fifth article of the original 
Constitution. 

AKTICLE I 

FREEDOM OF RELIGION AND SPEECH; RIGHT OF ASSEMBLY 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or 
prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, 
or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to 
petition the government for a redress of grievances. 

AETICLE II 

RIGHT TO BEAR ARMS 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, 
the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III 

QUARTERING OF TROOPS 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without 
the consent of the owner; nor in time of war but in a manner to be 
prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV 

RIGHT OF SEARCH PROHIBITED 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and 
effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, 
and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, supported by oath 
or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the 
persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 

RIGHT OF TRIAL BY JURY 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous 
crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in 
cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual 



APPENDIX 629 

service in time of war and public danger; nor shall any person be subject 
for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life and limb; nor 
shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, 
nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; 
nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensa- 
tion. 

AETICLE VI 

RIGHTS OF ACCUSED IN CRIMINAL CASES 

In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy 
and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein 
the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previ- 
ously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of 
the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have 
compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the 
assistance of counsel for his defense. 

AETICLE VII 

SUITS AT COMMON LAW 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed 
twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact 
tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United 
States than according to the rules of common law. 

AETICLE VIII 

BAIL AND FINES 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

AETICLE IX 

MODIFICATION OP ENUMERATED RIGHTS 

The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights shall not be con- 
strued to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

AETICLE X 

POWERS RESERVED TO STATES AND THE PEOPLE 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor 
prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to 
the people. 



630 A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 

AETICLE XI 

LIMITATION TO POWER OF THE FEDERAL COURTS 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend 
to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the 
United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any 
foreign state. 

AETICLE XII 

NEW ELECTORAL LAW 

The electors shall meet ia their respective states and vote by ballot for 
President and Vice-president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an 
inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the per- 
son voted for as Vice-president; and they shall make distinct lists of all 
persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-presi- 
dent, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and 
certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of tlie government of the United 
States, directed to the I'resident of the Senate; tlie President of the Senate 
shall, in the presence of the Senate and House of Rejiresentatives, open 
all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted ; the person having 
the greatest number of votes for President shall be the President, if such 
number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if 
no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest 
numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, 
the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the Presi- 
dent. But in choosing the President, the vote shall be taken by states, 
the representation from each state having one vote. A quorum for this 
purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the 
states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And 
if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President whenever the 
right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March 
next following, then the Vice-president shall act as president, as in the ease 
of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The per- 
son having the greatest number of votes as Vice-president shall be the 
Vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of elec- 
tors appointed; and if no i^erson have a majority, then from the two high- 
est numbers on the list the Senate shall choose the Vice-president. A 
quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number 
of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a 
choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of Presi- 
dent shall be eligible to that of Vice-president of the United States. 



APPENDIX 631 

ARTICLE XIII 

ABOLITION OF SLAVERY 

Slavery and Involuntary Servitude FroJiibited 

Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
ishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 

NEW LAV^^S MADE NECESSARY BY THE CIVIL WAR 

Qualifications for Citizenship 

Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and 
subject to the juiisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any law 
which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United 
States ; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, 
without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdic- 
tion the equal protection of the laws. 

Apportionment of Eepresentatives 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several states 
" according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of per- 
sons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to 
vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice- 
president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive 
or judicial officers of a state, or the members of the legislature thereof, is 
denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being twenty-one years 
of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except 
i'or participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation 
tlierein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male 
citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years 
of age in such state. 

Disability for Breaking Oath of Office 

See. 3. No person shall be a senator, or representative in Congress, or 
elector of President or Vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, 
under the United States, or under any state, who, having previously taken 
an oath as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or 



632 A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 

as a member of any state legii-Iature, or as an executive or judicial officer, 
of any state, to support the Constitution of the United States, shall have 
engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or com- 
fort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds 
of each house, remove such disability. 

The Public Debt 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized 
by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for 
services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. 
But neither the United States nor any state shall assume or pay any debt 
or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion against the United 
States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such 
debts, obligations, and claims shall be held illegal and void. 

See. 5. Congress shall have the power to enforce, by appropriate legis- 
lation, the provisions of this article. 

AETICLE XV 

niGHT OF SUFFRAGE 

Bight Guaranteed td All Citizens 

Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not 
be denied or abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account 
of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate 
legislation. 

AETICLE XVI 

INCOME TAX 

The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from 
whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, 
and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

AETICLE XVII 

ELECTION OF SENATORS 

The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from 
each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator 
shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifica- 
tions requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State 
legislatures. 



APPENDIX &3'6 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Sen- 
ate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election to 
fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any State may 
empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the 
people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. 

This amendment shall not he so construed as to affect the election or 
term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Con- 
stitution. 



634 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 







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APPENDIX 



635 



STATES AND TERRITORIES, CAPITALS, GOVERNORS, 
LEGISLATURE 



Statks and Terri- 
tories 



Capitals 



Alabama Montgomery- 

Alaska Torritory '.Tuneau 

Arizona I'hoonix 

Arkansas Little Rock. 

California 'Sacramento. 

Colorado bcnvor. 



Connecticut 

Delaware 

Dist. of Columbia. 

Florida 

Georgia 

(iuam Colony 

Hawaii Colony. . . . 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

IMain(> 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. ... 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire . . . 

New Jersey 

New Mexico 

New York 

North Carolina. . . . 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Philippines Pro. . . 
Porto Rico Colony. 
Rhode Island. . . . . 
South Carolina. . . . 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Hartford 

Dover 

Washington. . . 
.Tallahassee. . . . 

Atlanta 

Agana 

Honolulu 

Boise Cily . . . . 
Sprinytield .... 
Indianapolis. . . 
Des Moines. . . 

Topeka 

Frankfort 

Baton Rouge. . 

Angusta 

Annapolis 

Boston 

Lansing 

St. Paul 

Jackson 

Jefferson City. 

Helena 

Lincoln 

Carson City. . . 

Concord 

Trenton 

Santa Fe 

All)anv 

Raleigh 

Bismarck 

Columbus 

Oklahoma City 

Salem 

Ilarrisburg. . . . 

Manila 

San Juan 

Newport 

Columbia 

Pierre 

Nashville 

Austin 

Salt Lake City, 
Montpelier . . . . 

Richmond 

Olympia 

Charleston .... 

Madison 

Cheyenne 



Governors 



2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 



4 years 
2 years 



4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 

1 year 

2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 

2 years 

3 years 

4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 



4 years 
2 years 
2 years 
2 years 
2 years 
2 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 
4 years 
4 years 
2 years 
4 years 



Salary 



$5,000 
7.0((0 
4,000 
4,000 

10,000 
5,000 
5,000 
4,000 



5,000 
5,000 



7,000 

5.000 

12. (too 

s.ooo 

5,000 
5,000 
0,500 
5,000 

;!,ooo 

4,500 
8,000 
5,000 
7,000 
5,000 
5,000 
5,000 
2.500 
4,000 
3,000 

10,000 
5,()00 

10.000 
0,000 
5,000 

10,000 
4,500 
5.000 

10,000 

15,000 
8,000 
3,000 
3,000 
3,000 
4,000 
4,000 

(;.ooo 

2.500 
5,000 
0,000 
5.000 
5.000 
4,000 



Legislature 
Limit of 
Session 



50 days 
()0 days 
None 
<>0 days 
00 days 
00 days 
None 
None 

00 days 
50 days 



00 days 
None 
00 days 
None 
40 days 
00 days 
00 days 
None 
00 days 
None 
None 
00 days 
00 days 
70 days 
60 days 
00 days 
00 days 
None 
None 
00 days 
None 
tio davs 
00 days 
None 
None 
40 days 
None 



None 
None 
00 days 
75 days 
no days 
00 days 
None 
00 days 
00 days 
45 days 
None 
40 days 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



Abbey, Edwin A., 563. 

Ab' er croni bie, 142. 

Ab nil' kis, 62, 03, 66, 189, 254. 

abolition, the act of doing away wltb, 

339. 
abolitionist, 374, 379, 396. 
aborigines, the earliest known inhabi- 
tants of a country, 43. 
A €a' di a, 55, 132, 134, 137, 141, 164. 
accession, territorial — 

Mexican cession, 363. 

Gadsden purchase, 382, 399. 

Alaska, 473, 602. 

Hawaii, 522, 606. 

Porto Kico, Guam, Philipiiines, 533. 
606. 

Tutuila, Pango Pango, Christmas, 
Baker, Midway, Wake, Howland, 
536, 606. 

Louisiana, 285, 289, 393. 
acts. See bills. 
Adams, Henry, 571. 

Adams, John, 170, 191, 224, 235, 314, 
392. 

vice-president, 257-274. 

re-election, 266. 

president, 275-281. 

death, 329, 395. 
Adams, John Quincy, 314, 329, 395. 

president, 323-330. 

sketch of life, 324. 

death, 398. 
Adams, Samuel, 172, 173, 176, 179, 184, 

235, 237. 
Administration Currency Bill, 596. 
Admiralty Courts, courts having juris- 
diction over naval questions and 
offenses, 170. 
Ag'assiz, 398. 
A gui nal' do, Em i 11 o, 534. 
Aix l:i Chapelle' (Aks lii shii pelle'), 137. 
Alabama, 318, 389, 395, 003. 
Alabama Claims, 480. 
Alabama, ship, 425, 447, 459, 480. 
A' Iti mo. Fort, 340. 
Alaska- 
purchase of, 473, 602. 

fisheries, 516. 

boundary disputes, 579. 607. 

railroad in, 598, 608. 



Alaskan Award, 579. 

Alaska-Yukon-Pacific Exposition, 591, 
607. 

Albany, 70, 99, 140. 

Albany Junto, 328. 

Albemarle Sound, 92. 

Alcott, Louisa M., 568. 

Aldrich, Thomas Bailey, 571. 

Alert, ship, 302, 394. 

Alexander, Chief, 121. 

Alexander VI, Pope, 32, 72. 

Alfred, ship, 213, 214. 

Algiers, 312. 

Al gon' quins (kins), 17, 101, 115, 135. 

alien, a foreigner ; one who is not a 
citizen of a country, land, or gov- 
ernment either by right of birth 
or naturalization, 278. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 278, 324, 392. 

Alleghany Mountains, 140. 

Alleghany River, 140. 

allegiance, the duty of loyalty to one's 
king, government, or state, 87. 

alliance, a union or connection of inter- 
ests between families, states, par- 
ties, etc. ; the act of uniting, 206. 

Al' lou ez', 63, 65. 

Alphonso XIII, 528. 

Al'ta m,a hii', 96. 

Altham', Father John, 87, 

Amazon, 33. 

amendments. Constitutional, 474. 

Bill of Rights, first ten, 238, 259, 273. 

twelfth, 294. 

thirteenth, 453, 464, 468, 602. 

fourteenth, 467, 468, 470, 479, 602. 

fifteenth, 470, 479, 602. 

sixteenth, 596, 008. 

seventeenth, 597, 608. 

American Colonization Society, 319, 
395. 

American Protective Association, 376. 

Ames, Representative, 483. 

xlm' herst, 142. 

Am' i das, 49. 

Amnesty Proclamation, 463, 464, 535, 
602. 

Amsterdam, 69, 113, 165. 

Amundsen, Captain Roald, 589, 608. 



636 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



637 



auarcbist, oue wbo aims at overtlirow- 

ing the government, 509, G04. 
anarchy, 509, 604. 
Anderson, Robert, 405. 
Andre, Major, 219, 240. 
Andres, Sir Edmund, 103, 122, 128, i:'.!, 

105. 
Angel Gabriel, 376. 
Annapolis, 55, 89. 
.■Anthracite Coal Strike, 570. 
An tie' tam, 424, 420, 457. 
.\nti-Federalist, 235, 237, 247. 
Anti-Masonic party, 336. 
anti-rent difficulties, 100, 353, .397. 
Apostolic Delegate, 475. 
Ap' po mat' tox, 449, 454, 455, 400. 
arbitration, the hearing and determin- 
ing by an arbitrator of a matter 
of dispute between two or more 
parties, 480, 510, 523, 536, 583, 
590, 605. 
Ar'gall, Samuel, 79, 104. 
Ar' gus, ship, 304. 
arid lands, irrigation of, 57S. 
aristocratic, being in favor of a govern- 
ment in which the sovereign power 
is entirely in the hands of certain 
persons ; tending toward display- 
ing preeminence by reason of birth, 
wealth, and culture, 91. 
Ar' is totle, 23. 
Arizona, 39, 363, 592, 609. 
Ark, ship, 86. 

Arkansas, 342, 396, 456, 463. 
Arkansas River, 58, 59. 
Ar ma' da. In vin' gi ble, a strong fleet 
composed of one hundred and fifty 
ships. It was sent (1588) by King 
Philip II of Spain against England 
to avenge the raiding and plunder- 
ing attacks of Sir Francis Drake 
and other English seamen, 
army, American Revolutionary — 
in charge of Washington, 188, 242. 
at New York, 193, 247. 
hardships at Valley Forge, 205. 
discontent in, 220, 229. 
on the Hudson, 223. 
at Newburgh, 229. 
disbands, 225, 247. 
army. Confederate, 404, 407. 

disbands, 449. 
army. Union, 404, 406, 407, 466. 
of the Cumberland, 416, 435, 455. 
of the Tennessee, 416, 417, 435. 
of Virginia, 423. 

of the Potomac, 410, 421, 423, 425, 
429, 435, 446, 454. 



Arnold, Benedict, 186, 189, 201, 203, 

218, 219, 246. 
Arsenal, U. S., 386, 405. 
art, American, 559. 
arts are classified as : 

a. The fine arts, or arts of beauty; 
such as painting, sculpture, music, 
poetry, etc. 

b. The industrial or useful arts, 
which include the trades requiring 
chiefly manual labor and skill. 

c. The liberal arts embrace the higher 
branches of learning such as the 
languages, history, sciences, etc. 

Arthur, Chester A., 490. 

elected as vice-president, 499. 

assumed presidency, 500. 

president, 500-504," 604. 

sketch of life, 500. 

death, 510. 
Articles of Confederation, 204. 

framing and adoption of, 204, 244, 
240. 

signification, 227. 

defects, 229, 250. 

attempt at revision, 234. 
artists, 160, 255, 563. 
Ashley River, 93. 

assembly, a delegation of people meet- 
ing for the purpose of legislation, 
82. 
Astor, 289. 
Astoria, 289, 393. 
astrolabe, 22, 26. 
Atchison, Kansas, 379. 
Atlanta, 433, 441, 447, 459, 502. 
.Atlantic cable, 473, 602. 
Austin, Stephen F., 340. 
.Australian Ballot, a system of voting 
by which secrecy is secured, the 
l)allot used being furnished by the 
govecnment, 508, 604. 
-Vustria, 472. 
authors, American, 505. 
automobile, 548. 
A' ver ys bor' o, 443, 459. 
aviation, 548. 
Az' a ri' as. Brother, 567. 
Azores, 32. 
Aztecs, 37, 362. 

Bacon, Nathaniel, 83, 84. 

Bacon, Roger, 23. 

Bacon's Rebellion, 83. 165. 

Bii' din. Rev. Stephen, 272. 392, 

Baffin, William, 49 

Bahama Islands, 30, 225. 

Baker, General, 411, 450. 



638 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Baker Island, 536. 

Bal bo' a, 36, 73. 

Ball, 563. 

ballot, reform of, 493, 508, 604. 

Balls Bluflf, 411, 456. 

Baltimore, 93, 152, 2.j0. 281, 309, 377, 

456, 475, 602, 604. 
Baltimore — 

First Lord, 85, 86, 109. 

.Second Lord, 85, 106. 

Third Lord, 88, S9. 

Fifth Lord, 89. 

Sixth Lord. 89. 
Bancroft, 58, 64, 86, 87, 88, .396, 568, 

571. 
banks, 338, 344. 

Hamilton's, 264. 

re-chartered, 313. 

Jackson's veto of, 336. 

withdrawal of deposits, 336, 396. 

state, 337. 

second, 394. 

National Bank Act, 440, 459. 

"wild cat," 344. 

"pet," 338, 345. 

treasuries and sub-treasuries, 340, 
397. 

establishment of New National, 351, 
352 
Banks, General, 421, 422, 423, 424, 

433, 458. 
Baptist Church, 131. 
Barbary States, 285. 290, 312. 
Barcelona, 31. 
Biir' clay, 304. 
Bar' lowe, 49. 

Barry, John, 152, 214, 240, 243. 
Biir thol di', 508. 
Barnard, George, 564. 
Barton, Clara, 529. 
battles, table of — 

Revolution, 226. 

1861, 413. 

1862, 428. 

1863, 437. 

1864, 448. 

1865, 450. 

Beach, Mrs. H. H. A., 559. 

Beckwith, 563. 

Beau'regiird (bo'). General, 363, 405, 
408, 410, 416, 417, 456. 

Be di' ni, a representative of the Floly 
Father sent to the United States 
(1853) to examine into the state 
of ecclesiastical afifairs and inci- 
dentally to call on the president 
and present to him the compli- 



ments and good wishes of the Holy 
Father, 375. 
Bee, General, 410. 
Be' haim, Martin, 26. 
Bell, Alexander Graham, 489, 548. 
Bell, John, 388. 
belligerent nations, nations engaged in 

war, 409. 
Belmont, battle, 411. 
Belnap, 483. 

Be' mis Heights, battle, 203, 244. 
Benedict XV, Pope, 601, 608. 
Benedictines, 44. 
Bennington, battle, 202, 244. 
Benson, 563. 
Bentonville, 443, 459. 
Be' ring Vi' tus, 473. 
Berkeley, William, 83, 105. 
Berlin Decree, 291, 393. 
Berlin treaty, 514. 
Bermuda Hundred, 446. 
Bermuda Islands, 189. 
Bierstadt, 563. 
Big Bethel, 411, 456. 
Billings, William, 560. 
Bill of Rights, 238, 259. 
liills — laws — acts — measures, 281. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 273, 373, 378, 
392. 

Naturalization Acts, 278, 293. 

Alien and Sedition Laws, 278, 324, 
392. 

economic measures, 284. 

Non-intercourse Act, 296, 393. 

Macon Bill, 296. 

Independent Treasury Act, 345, 349, 
351. 

.Appropriation Bill, 363. 

Omnibus Bill, 371, 373, 377, 378. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 378, 399. 

nullification acts, 334. 

Force Bill, 335, 479, 523. 

Homestead Bill, 406. 

Confiscation Act, 426. 

Conscription Bill, 437. 

Draft .\ct, 437. 

Legal Tender Act, 439. 

National Bank Act, 439, 459. 

Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 467, 478, 
602. 

Civil Rights Bill, 467, 602. 

Civil Service Act, 482, 604. 

Inflation Bill, 485. 

Anti-Chinese Law, 495. 

Bland-Allison Bill, 496, 514, 603. 

specie payment, 485, 497. 

Pendleton Bill, 500, 604. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



639 



reconstruction acts, 469, 470, 471, 

602. 
Tenure of Office Act, 469, 471, 5oS, 

602, 604. 

on reduction of postage, 501. 
Chinese immigration laws, 502, 542, 

603, 604, 605. 

Presidential Succession Law, 505, 
604. 

improvement of navy, 507. 

Interstate Commerce Act, 507, 550, 
582, 604. 

Mills' Tariff Bill, 510. 

Dependent Pension Bill, 512, 605. 

McKinlcy Tariff Bill, 513, 588, 605. 

Sherman Act, 514, 520, 525, 605. 

copyright law, 515. 

Wilson Tariff Act, 521, 525, 605. 

Dingley Tariff Bill, 527, 588, 605. 

Gold Standard Act. 527. 

Geary Act, 542, 605. 

Sherman Anti-trust Act, 550. 

food laws, 559, 582. 

Spopner Act, 576. 

irrigation, law providing for, 578, 
606. 

fish and game laws, 584. 

Payne-Aldrich Tariff, 588, 596, 607. 

Underwood Tariff Bill, 596, 608. 

income ta.x, 596, 608. 

Administration Currency, or Owen- 
Glass Bill, 596, 608. 

parcel post, 597. 

tolls repeal, 597, 608. 

railroad provisions in Alaska, 598. 
BI lox' 1, 61. 
Black Codes, 465, 466. 
black death, a pestilence which ravaged 
Europe and Asia in the Fourteenth 
Century, 21. 
Black Hawk, Chief, 341. 
Black Hawk War, 341, 369, 390, 396. 
black lists, 494. 
"Black Republicans," 379. 
Blaine, James G., 503, 514, 515. 
Blan' chet. Father, 355. 
Blanco, 529. 

Bland-Allison Bill, 496, 514, 603. 
Blashfleld, 563. 

Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of the, 555. 
Blessed Virgin Mary, 68, 86, 368, 398. 
Block, Adrian, 126. 

blockade, the investment of a port by 
a hostile naval force of competent 
strength to prevent commercial 
communication, 291, 300, 304, 408, 
411, 413, 456, 459, 464, 532, 606. 



runners, 408, 435. 
squadron, 412. 
Blum, 563. 

Boil, Father Bernard, 31. 
bombard, to attack with artillery, espe- 
cially to throw shells, hot shot, 
etc., at or into, 405. 
Bon Homme Richard (bon om re shiir'), 

215. 
Boone, Daniel, 209, 249. 
Boones' bo ru, 209. 
Booneville, 455, 456. 
Booth, John Wilkes, 451, 452, 460. 
Border Ruffians, 379. 
Borglum, Solon H,, 564. 
l)nrough, a district or province sending 

members to the assembly, 82. 
Boston, 93, 117, 135, 152, 164, 171, 190, 

242, 250, 562, 603. 
Boston Massacre, 176, 242. 
Boston Port Bill, 178. 
Boston Tea Party, 178, 242. 
Boston Weekly News Letter, 160. 
boundai'y — 

of Maryland, 86. 
disputes in Maryland, 86, 89. 
disputes in Pennsylvania, 89, 111. 
disputes in Rhode Island, 131. 
disputes between French and English 

Colonies, 137. 
in 1783, 248. 

treaties with England, 315. 
treaties with Spain, 316. 
disputes between Texas and Mexico, 

341. 
Canadian, 352, 397. 
Oregon, 354, 358, 398. 
Mexican, 358, 382. 
Northwest, 480. 
Alaskan, 579, 607. ' 
Bowling Green, 414, 415. 
Boxer Uprising, 537, 581, 606. 
Boxers, a secret society in China akin 
to the Freemasons ; their avowed 
object was the expulsion from 
China of all Christians and for- 
eigners, 537. 
boycotts, 494, 524. 
Braddock, General, 142. 
Bradford, Governor, 114, 115, 120, 160. 
Brady, Assistant Postmaster-General, 

500. 
Bragg, General, 416, 417, 424, 433, 435, 

458. 
Brandt, Mohawk Chief, 201, 209. 
Brandywine, battle, 198, 244. 
Brazil, 33, 73. 
Bre boeuf, Father, 64, 65. 



640 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Breckenridge, John C, 384, 388. 

Brewster, William, 114. 

bridges, 495, 503. 

Brock, General, 301. 

Broke, Captain, 304. 

Brooke, Lord, 126. 

Brooklyn Bridge, 503. 

Brooklyn Heights, 193. 

Brooks, Kepresentative, 483. 

Brown, General Jacob, 307, 394. 

Brown, Henry Kirk, 564. 

Brown, John, 386, 399. 

Brown University, 557. 

Bruce, 563. 

Brush, 563. 

Bryant, William Cullen, 218, 395, 565, 

566, 603. 
Bryan, William Jennings, 525, 526, 574, 

586, 587. 
Buchanan, Commodore Franklin, 418. 
Buchanan, James, 383, 399. 
president, 384-391, 
sketch of life, 384. 
Buck, Dudley, 559. 
Buckner, General, 414. 
Buell, 363, 416, 417. 
Bue' na Vis' ta, "beautiful views," :!6u, 

364, 398. 
Bull, John, 192. 
Bull Run, battle, 409, 412, 421, 423, 

424, 456. 
Bulwer, 374. 

Bunker Hill, battle, 187, 242. 
bureau — 

Freedmen's Bill, 467, 478. 
weather, 487. 

of American Republics, 514. 
Catholic Indian, 555. 
forest service, 584. 
Bflr' gess es (bflr' jes), 82. 
Burgoyne', General, 187, 200, 202, 2<t3. 

208, 216, 244. 
Burgoyne's invasion, 200. 
Bur' lln game, treaty, 474, 495, 602. 
Burnside, General, 425, 429, 435, 439, 

458. 
Burr, Aaron, 282, 287, 393. 
Butler, Benjamin, 504. 
Butler, General, 411, 420, 426, 444, 445, 

448. 
Butler, Tory General, 209. 
Butternuts, 439. 

€a bar, a secret association composed 
of a few designing persons ; plot 
or conspiracy, 206. 

cabinet — 

Washington's, 260, 266, 401. 



Adams's disloyal, 275. 

Jefferson's harmonious, 284. 

Madison's, 295. 

Monroe's able, 314. 

Jackson's weak, 332. 

Harrison's retained, 351. 

Tyler's, resignation of, 352. 

Lincoln's, 401. 

Lincoln's retained, 461. 

McKinley's retained, 575. 
cable, 473, 547, 579, 602, 607. 
Cab' ot, John, 46, 52, 62, 72, 73, 102, 

138. 
Ca bral', Pe' dro, 33, 73. 
Cabrlllo (cabr'il'yo), 40, 74. 
Cabokia, 210. 
Ca lais'. 126. 

Caldwell, Miss Mary, 557. 
Cill houn', John C, 239, 297, 312, 314, 
323, 331, 333, 338, 354, 359, 369, 
371, 372, 375, 393, 398, 477. 
California, 48, 358, 361, 36.3, 364, 370, 

371, 373, 375, 398. 
Ciil' vert, Ce cil i us, 85. 
Calvert, George, 85. 
Calvert, Leonard, 85, 88. 
Calvin, John, 73. 
Cambridge, 117, 184, 193, 557. 
Camden, battle, 210, 246. 
campaign, a connected series of mili- 
tary operations forming a distinct 
stage in war or political operations 
preceding an election, 198. 
campaigns, military — 

in Pennsylvania, 198-200. 

in New York, 200-204. 

in the South, 220-222. 

in Virginia, 223. 

in the West, 414-418. 

peninsular, 420, 421-424. 

in Tennessee, 441. 

in Georgia, 441. 

overland, 443-445. 
Campos, 529. 
Canada, 17, 56, 57, 60, 61, 62, 64, 68, 

132, 135, 394. 
Canadian Rebellion, 346. 
Canadian shores, 480. 
Canal, Cape Cod, 599, 608. 
Canal, Panama. See Panama. 
Canary Islands, 30, 51, 77. 
Canby, General, 487. 
Can' ger. Father Louis, 45, 74. 
Canon, 590. 
Ca non' i cus, 115. 
Cape Breton Island, 46, 55, 137. 
Cape Fear River, 38, 92. 
Cape Verde Islands, 32, 33, 531. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



641 



capital, national, 392, 3!)4. 

I'hiladolphia, 263. 

Washingtou, 80, 259, 263, 606. 
capitol, 283, 308, 314. 
Carmelite, 271. 
Carnegie Steel Works, 518. 
Carolina, 222, 249. 

name, 91. 

French Huguenot attempt at settle- 
ment, 55. 

grant, 91. 

government, 91, 95. 

first settlement. North Carolina, 92. 

first settlement. South Carolina, 93. 

early history, 91-95. 

religion, 95. 

manners and customs, 95. 

and the Constitution. 237. 
Carolina, Fort, 42, 55. 
Carpenter's Hall, 179. 
carpet-baggers, 476, 602. 
Carroll, Charles of Carrollton, 189, 192, 

240, 241, 327, 342, 396, 459. 
Carroll, Daniel, 240, 241, 264. 
Carroll, John, 189, 240, 254, 255, 271, 

392, 394, 518, 556, 572. 
Ciir' ter et Colony, 93. 
Carteret, George, 105 . 
Carteret, Philip, 105. 
Carthage, 411, 456. 
Cilr tier', (tya'), James, 53, 61, 74. 
Carver, John, 113, 114. 
Cary, Alice and Phoebe, 568. 
Casco, 135, 136.. 
Cass, Lewis, 363, 369. 
Ca thay', 21, 46. 
cathedrals, 489, 561. 
Catholicity, 21, 30, 31, 35, 38, 40, 41, 
43, 44, 45, 46, 55, 56, 59, 60, 62-68, 
72, 73, 84, 85, 88, 89, 98, 103, 119, 
129, 136, 157, 179, 271, 310, 342. 
509, 517, 571, 573, 593, 603. 

Ordinance of 1787, 232, 233. 

patriotism among Catholics, 239-241. 

during the Revolution, 254. 

in the West, 255. 

immigration, 281. 

Indian missions, 322, 555, 573. 

Anti-Catholic attacks, 342. 

(1830-1840), 347. 

riots against, 353, 397. 

in Oregon, .356, 397. 

in Mexico and California, 366. 

Knownothlngism, 375. 

first Plenary Council, 377. 

second Plenary Council, 475, 602. 

third Plenary Council, 241, 604. 

Indian affairs, 487. 



first American Cardinal, 489. 
American College at Rome, 489. 
first Catholic Lay Congress, 517, 
in Hawaii, 522. 
in Philippines, 535. 
among negroes, 553, 555. 
education, 377, 553-558. 
Motu Proprio, 561, 585. 
election of Pius X, 585, 607. 
three American Cardinals, 593. 
death of Pius X, 601, 60S. 
election of Benedict XV, 601, 608. 
Catholic leaders, 240, 241. 
Catholic University of America, 556. 
caucus, a meeting of leaders of a party, 
to decide on the policies or can- 
didates for ofiice to be supported, 
336. 
Cav' a liers', those of the court party in 
the times of Kings Charles I and 
II. They were thus called from 
their long flowing locks, gay dress, 
and demeanors, as contrasted with 
the austerity of the Parliamentary 
party, who were styled "Round- 
lieads" from the mode in which 
they wore their hair closely 
cropped, 81, 123. 
Cedar Creek, 446. 
Cedar Mountain, 424, 457. 
cemetery, national, 431, 458. 
census, 249, 293. 
centennial, a one-hundredth celebration 

of any great event, 43. 
centennials, 329, 488, 501, 517, 524, 

579, 603, 604. 
center of commerce, 21. 
center of population, a point through 
which if an east-west line be 
drawn, there are as many people 
to the north as to the south of it, 
and if a north-south line be drawn 
there are as many people to the 
east as to the west of it, 541. 
Central America, 31, 35, 73. 
Cer' ro Gor' do. "large bell," 362. 
Cervera (thar va' ra), Admiral, 531, 

600. 
Chadwick, George, 559. 
Chafin, Eugene W., 586. 
Chambersburg,- 445. 

Champlain, Lake, 56, 164, 189, .301, 309. 
Champlain, Samuel de, 55, 57, 58, 60, 

61, 70, 75, 126. 
Chancellorsville, battle, 429, 444, 458. 
Charles I, of England, 81, 85, 86, 116, 

122, 164. 
Charles II, of England, 91. 



642 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Charles IX, of France, 55, 

Charles, Cape, 77. 

Charles River, 116, 184. 

Charleston, 93, 95, 137, 212, 216, 222, 

243, 246, 250, 436, 459, 502. 
attack on, 190. 
capture of, 216. 
Harbor, 390. 
charter, an official document conveying 

lands to a companj' ; one granting 

certain political rights and privi- 
leges to the people, 155. 
charter, Connecticut, 12S, 165. 
Charter Oak, 129. 

charter, Rhode Island, 130, 165, 352. 
Charter of Privileges, Penn's, 110. 
Chase, 563. 
Chase, Salmon P., 370, 372, 401, 407, 

440, 471. 
Chase, Samuel, 189. 
CJhau tau' qua. 558. 
Chatham, Earl of, 141. 
Chattanooga, 415, 417, 418, 432, 433. 

435, 436, 440, 441, 459. 
Oher' boilrg, 447. 
Cherokee Indians, 209, 329. 
Cherry Valley Massacre, 209, 245. 
Chesapeake Bay, 77. 79, 421. 
Chesapeake, ship, 292, 304, 393, 394. 
Chestei-, 107. 
Chi ii' pa, 35. 
Chicago, 301, 474, 483, 544, 603, 604, 

605. 
Chick' a horn' i ny River, 422. 
Chick' a mau' ga, 434, 458. 
Chickering, Jonas, 561. 
Chief Justice, 260, 280, 384, 471, 592, 

608. 
Chile, ti"oul)le with, 515. 
Chi e' sa. Cardinal, 601. 
China — 

treaty with, 474, 602. 
trade with, 486. 

Boxer Uprising in, 537, 581, 606. 
Open Door, 537, (!06. 
Chinese immigration, 486, 495, 502, 

603, 604. 
Chippewa, battle, 307, 394. 
Chippewa Indians, 64, (!6. 
Christina, I'ort, 106. 
Christina, Queen-Regent, 528. 
Christmas Island, 536. 
Chronological Review, 72-75, 164-166, 

242-247, 392-399, 456-460, 602-608. 
Church, Captain, 121. 
Churches, 31. 
Qi' bo la. Seven cities of, according to a 

legend, when the Arabs invaded the 



Spanish peninsula, seven bishops 
with many followers escaped and 
built the seven cities of Cibola on 
an island in the Atlantic Ocean. 
One of the Indian tribes preserved 
a story of seven caves in which 
their ancestors lived. This was 
confounded by the Spanish with 
the legendary tale, 39, 74. 
Cincinnati, 266, 483. 
Cincinnati Liedertafel, 560. 
Ci pan' go, 21. 
circumnavigation of the globe, 37, 48, 

73, 75, 273, 607. 
circular letter, a letter addressed to 
various persons having a common 
interest, 176. 
City Hall, N. Y., 237. 
Civil Rights Bill, 467, 602. 
Civil Service Reform, 479, 482, 486, 

500, 503, 505, 523, 604. 
Civil War, 163, 271, 280, 360, 363, 461, 
476. 

extent and signification of, 400. 

comparative strength and resources, 
401-40.3. 

causes, 403. 

scene, 404. 

first year, 405-413. 

summary of 1861, 412. 

table of important battles of 1861, 
413. 

Lincoln's strategic plans, 413. 

second year, 414-42^. 

results of 1862, 428. 

table of important battles of 1862, 
428. 

plan for the third year, 429. 

third year, 429-436. 

results of 1863, 436. 

table of important battles of 1863, 
437. 

plan for fourth year, 440. 

fourth year, 440-448. 

tal)le of important battles of 1864, 
448. 

fifth year, 449-450. 

tal)le of important battles of 1865, 
450. 

naval operations, 418-421, 435, 447, 
448. 

closing events, 452.1 

results, 452. 

Catholicity and, 453. 

great commanders, 454. 

Catholic officers, 455. 

finances during, 406, 439. 

foreign attitude, 409, 425, 426, 447. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



643 



political affairs, 43''-440. 

debt, 46S. 
civil war in Kansas, 380, 399. 
Clfii' bOrno's Uebellion, 88. 
Claiborne, William, 88. 
claims — 

Alabama, 480. 
fishery, 480. 
claims and occupancy — 
Spanish, 42, 145. 
English, 52, 101, 145, 167. 
French, 61, 62, 132, 133, 167. 
rival, 62, 133, 136, 138. 
Dutch, 71, 106. 
Swedish, 106. 
colonial, 208. 
Oregon, 354. 
clan, a tribe composed of all the fami- 
lies tracing descent from a common 
ancestor. 
Clarendon Colony, 92. 
Clarendon, Lord, 91. 
Clark, Rogers, conquest of the North- 
west, 209, 232, 245, 288. 
Clark, William, 288, 393, 579. 
Clavijero (cla' ve ha' ro), 44. 
Clay, Henry, 239, 297, 319, 321, 323, 
324, 351, 352, 357, 369, 370, 375, 
393, 399. 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 374, 398, 578. 
Clayton, .John M., 374. 
Clermont, ship, 289. 
Cleveland, Grover, 504, 510. 

president, 505-511, 519-525, 604, 605. 
sketch of life. 505. 
re-election, 519. 
death, 585, 607. 
Clinton, DeWitt. 300, 326. 
Clinton, General, 187, 190, 208, 218, 

222, 223, 224. 
Clinton, George, 295, 300. 
Cloverleaf Bay, 531. 
Cod. Cape. 51, 75, 113. 
Coddington, 130. 
Cold Harbor, 445, 459. 
Cole, Thomas, 563. 
Colfax, Schuyler, 476. 
Coligny (kolenye'), Gaspard, 55. 
College in Rome, American, "The Amer- 
ican College of the Roman Catholic 
Church of the United States, Rome, 
Italy," dates its origin to the proc- 
lamation of the dogma of the Im- 
maculate Conception (1854). On 
this occasion a number of American 
bishops, through Archbishop 
Hughes of New York and Kendricks 
of Baltimore, expressed to Pius IX 



the desire to see an American Col- 
lege established that would take 
rank with the other national col- 
leges in that city. Subsequently, 
Pius IX purchased, for forty-two 
thousand dollars an old Visitation 
Convent, then occupied by soldiers 
of the French garrison, while the 
American Bishops furnished it and 
procured the funds necessary for 
its maintenance. Accordingly, the 
college was formally opened with 
thirteen students (Dec. 8. 1859), 
and has prospered remarkal)ly ever 
since, 489. 
colleges and universities, 556-558. 

Spanish, 43. 

William and Mary, 84, 166, 557. 

St. John's, 90, 166. 

in New York, 104. 

Princeton, 105, 166, 557. 

Harvard, 43, 123, 165. 

Yale, 130, 166, 557. 

Georgetown, 271. 

Notre Dame, 556. 
Coloma, 364. 

Colombia, treaty with rejected, 578. 
colonies, thirteen original, 76. 

groups, 76. 

southern group, 76-98, 251. 

middle group, 99-112, 251. 

New England group, 112-131, 250, 
251. 

territory, 147. 

population, 147. 

nationalities, 147. 

social rank, 147. 

negro slavery, 149. 

industrial life, 151. 

growth of towns. 152. 

commerce, 152, 109. 

weights, measures, money, 153. 

travel, communication, 153. 

government, 155. 

religion, 156. 

religious intolerance, 157. 

education, 158. 

artists. 160. 

medicine and law, 1(!0. 

charitable institutions, 161. 

household, 161. 

amusements, 162. 

differences, 163. 
Colorado, 74, 363, 489, 603. 
Colorado River, 40, 74. 
Colored troops, 427, 446. 
Columbia, 443, 459. 
Columbian Exposition, 524. 



644 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



Columbia River, 273, 392. 
('olunil)ia Univei'sity, 557. 
Columbus. 72, 7:!, 482. 

time, 23. 

precursors, 2(!. 

motives and ideas, 27. 

in quest of help, 27. 

prepares for voyage, 28. 

ships of, 29-31. 

first voyage, 29. 

landing, 30. 

discoveries, 30, 31. 

return voyage, 31. 

later voyage, 31. 

results of voyages, 32. 
Columbus, Ohio, 414, 415. 
commerce, 271, 291, 408. 

colonial, 152, 169. 

under the Confederation, 250. 

under the Constitution, 292, 300. 

Perry's treaty with Japan, 382, 399. 

regulation of, 498. 

interstate, 507, 550, 582, 604. 

with China, 537. 

Secretary of, 576. 

Tolls Repeal Bill, 597. 
Commissary Department, that depart- 
ment of an army which provides 
provisions, clothing, and all the 
daily necessaries other than those 
connected with actual fighting, 205. 
Commission — 

Geneva Arbitration, 480. 

joint high, 491. 

interstate, 508. 

monetary, 527. 

Christian and sanitary, 453. 
commissioned, appointed, 46. 
Committee — 

of Correspondence, 179. 

framing Declaration of Independence, 
191. 

framing Articles of Confederation, 
204. 
"Common Sense," 191. 
Commonwealth, a state in which the 
supreme power is vested in the 
people ; strictly speaking, the form 
of government existing under 
Cromwell, and his son Richard. 81. 
Communion, decree on Holy, 585, (!01. 
communism, 78, 80, 114. 
Compact, Mayflower, 113. 
Company — 

Plymouth, 51, 52, 75, 112. 

London, 51, 52, 75, 77, 78, 82, 113. 

Virginia, 51, 7(i. 



Council of Plymouth, 52, 112, 113, 
116, 125, 12(i. 

Dutch East India, Oi). 

Dutch West India, 70, !)!). 

South, 106. 

Massachusetts Bay, 110, 117, 164. 

Ohio, 139. 

Pacific Fur. 289. 
compass, 22, 26, 30. 

Compromise, a settlement by arbitra- 
tion or by mutual consent reached 
by concession of both sides, 235. 

Constitutional, 235, 236. 

Missouri, 318, C70, 373, 379, 395. 

of 1850, 370, 373, 377, 378. 

Clay's Tariff, 335. 
Concord, 180, 217. 
Concord Bridge, 185. 
Confederacy — 

formation of, 389, 399, 456. 

secession, 389, 390, 399. 

Convention at Montgomery, 389. 

seizure of forts, 389. 

president and vice-president of, 390, 
399. 

states composing the, 405. 

service in, 463, 464. 

leaders refused suffrage, 46(). 
confederation, association; league, 204. 
Confiscate, to appropriate to the public 

use, 225. 
Congress — 

Colonial, 135. 

First Continental, 179, 240, 242. 

Second, 185, 242. 

Stamp Act, 174, 242. 

Provincial, 179. 

of the Confederation, 186, 229-231, 
233, 237, 246, 247. 

Continental, 186. 

Lancaster and York, 198. 

oath of allegiance to, 210. 

powers under Constitution, 236. 

Houses of, 236. 

Catholic members of First, 240. 

in matters, spiritual, 254. 

First National, 258, 260, 272. 

debates in, 371, 379, 484. 

in extra session, 345, 406, 527, 5SS, 
595. 

and reconstruction, 465, 409, 476. 

open opposition, 463. 

not in session, 463. 

rejects Johnson's plan, 465. 

joint high commission, 492. 

feeling between President and, 468. 

denounced, 468. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



645 



Connecticut, 104, 165, 2:;2, 249. 

grant, 12G. 

purpose, 127. 

tlaini, 126. 

first settlement, 126. 

name, 126. 

early history, 120-130. 

government, 127, 128. 

religion, manners, and customs, 129. 

education, 130. 

and the Indians, 129. 

charter, 128, 165. ■ 
Connecticut cession. 111. 
Connecticut River, 71, 99, 102. 
Conscription Bill, 437. 
Conservation, 583, 607. 
conspiracy, a combination of men for 

an evil purpose, 206. 
Constantinople, 22. 
Constellation, ship, 277. 
Constitution, 235, 375, 468, 471, 492. 

definition, 238. 

framing of, 234. 

adoption of by Convention, 234, 247. 

series of compromises, 235. 

plan of, 235, 236. 

ratified by states, 237. 

Bill of Rights, 238. 

freedom of conscience, 253, 254. 

government under, 238. 

preamble of, 238. 

fails to provide for times of civil 
strife, 462. 

loose construction of, 265, 286, 287. 

strict construction of, 265, 287, 338. 

twelfth amendment, 294. 

thirteenth amendment, 464, 468, 602. 

fourteenth amendment, 467, 468, 470, 
479, 602. 

fifteenth amendment, .470, 479, 602. 

sixteenth amendment, 596, 608. 

seventeenth amendment, 597, OOS. 
Constitution, ship, 302, 304, 394, 560. 
Construction, Constitutional — 

loose, 265, 286. 

strict, 265, 287, 338. 
Continental Army, 186. 
continental line, the permanently or- 
ganized force of the American army 
during the Revolution, 190. 
contingency, the possibility of coming 

to pass, 506. 
contraband, prohibited or excluded by 

law or treaty. 269. 
Convention, Constitutional, 237, 469. 

first steps toward, 233, 234. 

president of, 234. 

eminent members, 235, 240. 



proceedings of, 238. 
state constitutional, 469. 
Hartford, 310, 324, 389. 
at Montgomery, 389. 
origin of, 336. 

Convention, National, origin of, 336. 

Conway Cabal, 200, 245. 

Cooke, .lay, & Co., 484. 

Cooper, .Tames Feuimore, 395, 565. 

Cooper, Peter, 487. 

Cooper River, 93. 

Co per' nl €us, Nicholas, 23, 24. 

Copley, John, 160, 255, 563. 

Copperheads, 439. 

Cor'do va, 36, 37. 

Corinth, 416, 417, 457. 

Cornell University, 558. 

Corwallis, Lord, 195, 196, 197, 216, 217, 
222, 223. 

Cor 6 nil' do, 39, 74. 

Cor' pii. Father, 45, 75. 

corporations, 486, 493, 550, 581. 

corps, a l)ody containing two or more 
divisions of a large army, 217. 

Corrigan, Archbishop, 517. 

corrupt bargain, 323. 

COrtez', 37, 73, 362. 

cotton, 93, 251, 270, 408, 409, 502, 604. 

cotton gin, 270, 392, 545. 

Council — ■ 

First Plenary, 377, 399. 
Second Plenary, 475, 602. 
Third Plenary, 241, 604. 
Sixth Council of Baltimore, 368. 
First Provincial, 342, 390. 

countersign, a secret word or phrase 
which must be given to anyone 
wishing to pass a sentry or guard, 
212. 

court-martial, a court consisting of mili- 
tary or naval oflicers for the trial 
of any one belonging to the army 
or navy, 213. 

('owes, 86. 

Cowpons, 221, 246. 

Cox, 563. 

Coxey, 524. 

Crater, battle of the, 445, 449. 

Crawford. Francis Marion, 571. 

Crawford, Thomas, 564. 

Crawford. William. 323. 

Credit Mobilier, 483, 603. 

Creek Indians, 307, 329, 341. 

Creighton University. 556. 

Crescent, the emblem of the Turkish 
Empire, adopted after the taking 
of Constantinople, 22. 

Crime of 1873, 485. 



646 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Cromwell, 81, 91. 

Crow Foot, 518. 

Crown Point, 56, 141, 142, 186, 187, 
18!), 200, 244. 

cruiser, usually an armed vessel that 
sails to and fro for the protection 
of other vessels in search of an 
enemy of the government, 215. 

Cru sades', sacred wars undertaken by 
the chivalry of Christian nations 
for the deliverance of the Holy 
Land, and especially the Sepulcher 
of our Lord, from Mohammedan 
oppression, 21. 

Crystal Palace, 382. 

Cuba, .30, ;J6, 37, 39, 41, 72, 145, 524, 
528, 533. 
filibustering expeditions against, 381, 

399, 524. 
Ostend Manifesto, 381. 
government of, 534, 606. 
insurrection in, 582. 

Cumberland Gap, 250, 414. 

Cumberland Kiver, 414. 

Cumberland, ship, 418. 

Curacao (ku'rasQ), 71. 

currency. See money. 

Curtis, General S. R., 417. 

Curtis, Judge, 385. 

Custer, George A., 488, 603. 

Cuttyhunk, 51. 

Cy' line, ship, 304. 

Czar, Russian, 536. 

Czolgosz (chol'gSsh), 574. 

Dab Ion', Father, 63, 6.5. 

D;i Gil' ma Viis' -eo, 33, 72. 

D'Ailly (da ye'), Cardinal, 23, 26. 

Dakota, 4:;(). 

Dale, Sir Thomas, 80. 

Dallas, George M., 357. 

Dallas, Ga., 441, 459. 

Dallin, Cyrus E., 564. 

D'Allyon, Vasquez (viis' keth de il 

yon'), 38, 73. 
Dalton, Ga., 435, 440, 441. 
Damien, Leather, 523. 
Daniel, Father, 65. 
Daniels, Secretary, 598. 
Dan River, 222. 
Dartmouth, 558. 
Daughters of Liberty, 174. 
Davenport, .John, 128. 
Davis, Admiral, 417. 
Davis, Jefferson, 363, 370, 372, 389, 

390, 398, 399, 407, 411, 450, 456. 
Davis, John, 49, 75. 
De A lur €5n' Her niiu' do, 40, 74. 



Deane, Silas, 206. 
Dearborn, General, 301, 305. 
Debs, Eugene V., 580, 586. 
debt, 477. 

Confederate, 464, 465, 468. 
United States, 468, 474, 521. 
Civil War, 438, 468, 503. 
INIexican, 472. 
National, 439. 
after the Revolution, 260. 
assumption of state debts, 263. 
Del)tor prisons, 198, 231. 
Debtor prisons, English, 96, 97. 
De ca' tur, Stephen, 291, 312, 393, 394. 
decimal system of coinage, 264. 
Declaration of Independence, 191, 206, 
243, 350, 385, 509. 
closing sentence, 192. 
signing of, 192. 
significance of, 192. 
centennial of, 488, 603. 
Declaration of Neutrality, 600, 608. 
Declaration of Rights, 174, 180. 
Declaratory Act, 175. 
Deerfield, 136. 
De Gourges (de gorg), 42. 
De Griisse', Count, 223. 
De Kalb, Baron, 198, 217, 221, 239. 
De la Roch6, Father, 67. 
Delaware — 
claim, 106. 

first settlement, 106, 165. 
government, 106. 
character of settlers, 106. 
during Civil War, 405. 
Delaware, Lord, 80. 

Delaware River, 71, 99, 106, 107, 108. 
delegate, one oflSclally appointed, 140. 
De Les' seps, Ferdinand, 578. 
Delfshaven, 113. 
De mers. Father, 355. 
Democrats, 348, 363, 385, 399, 438, 44(>. 
contest election, 491. 
elect presidents, 331, 344, 357, 378, 

384, 505, 519, 595. 
platform of 1844, 355. 
of 1852, 377. 
of 1860, 388. 
of 1868, 474. 
of 1872, 480. 
of 1876, 486. 
of 1880, 498. 
of 1888, 510. 
of 1890, 525. 
of 1900, 539. 
of 1908, 586. 
Democrats, Southern. See Southern 
Whites. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



647 



De Monts (Mong), Sieur, 55, 61, 126. 
De O nil' tc, Juan (bu tin'), 42, 75. 
departments, administrative, 259, 506. 

of tlie Interior, organized, 398. 

of War, 462, 467, 4S7. 

of Agriculture, 424, 487, 584. 

of Commerce and Labor, 506. 

now department of Labor, 506. 
De Smet, Fatber, .322, 356, 397. 
Des Moines River, 58. 
De Soto, 41, 74. 

D'Estaing (des tan'), 208, 216, 245. 
Detroit, 61, 146, 209, 301. 
De Vii' ca, Ca be' za, 39, 74. 
Dewey, Admiral, 5:{2, 606. 
Dewing, 563. 

Dey, the name given to the command- 
ing officer' of the corps of Algiers, 
312. 
Diaz, Bartholomew, 25, 72. 
Diaz, President, 590, 508. 
Dickinson, .John, 176. 
Di eppe', 68. 

Dingley Tariff Bill, 527, 605. 
Dinwiddie, Governor, 140. 
diplomacy, the art and practice of con- 
ducting negotiations between na- 
tions, particularly in securing 
treaties, 473. 
discoveries and explorations — 

Northmen, 20. 

Columbus, 27-32. 

Portuguese, 33, 34. 

Spanish, 35-45. 

English, 46-52. 

French, 53-62. 

Dutch, 69-71. 

Missionaries, 67. 

Jolin Smith, 78. 

of Poles, 589, 608. 
discovery of America — ■ 

causes that led to, 20. 

influence of Crusades on, 21. 

aids to, 22. 

commercial conditions leading to, 21. 

by Columbus, 30. 

of South America, 31. 

of North America, 46. 
disfranchise, to deprive one of the 
rights of a citizen, such as voting, 
holding office, etc., 477. 
Dissenters, 112. 

District of Columbia, 371, 427, 457. 
Dixie Land, 425. 
Dixon, Jeremiah, 89. 
documents — 

Mayflower Compact, 113. 

Declaration of Rights, 174, ISO. 



Declaration of Independence, 191, 
243. 

Articles of Confederation. 204, 227. 

Ordinance of 1787, 232, 247. 
Dolphin, ship, 53. 
Dominicans, 35, 38, 45. 
Donelson, Fort, 414, 416, 454. 
Dongan charter. 103. 
Dongan, Thomas, 103, 157. 
Donnelly, Eleanor C, 570. 
Dorchester, 117, 127. 
Dorchester Heights, 190. 
Dorr, Thomas, 353. 
Dorsey, Anna Hanson, 568. 
Dorsey, Senator, 500. 
Douglas, Stephen A., 370, 372, 379, 381, 

386, 399, 401. 
Douglass, Frederick, 552, 553. 
Dove, ship, 86. 
Dover, 125, 135. 
Dow, Neal, 498. 
Draft Act, 437, 446. 
Draft Riot. 437, 458. 
Drake, Sir Francis, 48, 49, 69, 75. 
Dred Scott Decision, 384, 386, 388, 427. 
Drexel, Mother Catharine, 555. 
Druillettes (drwee yet'). Father, 62. 
Du Bourg', Bishop, 322. 
duel between Hamilton and Burr, 287. 
Duke of York, 102, 103, 106. 
Du Lhut, 61. 
Duluth, 61. 

Du pont'. Commodore, 436, 459. 
Duquesne (kan'). Fort, 140, 141, 142. 
Dustin, Mr. and Mr.s., 136. 
Dutch, 133. 

maritime enterprise, 69. 

motives, 70. 

first voyage, 69. 

discoveries and explorations, 69-71. 

and the Indians, 70, 100. 

first settlement, 70. 

claims and occupancy, 71, 106, 126. 

governors, 101. 

influence, 104. 

in Delaware, 106. 
Dwight, Timothy, 560. 

Eads, Captain, 13. 495. 

Early. General Julial, 445, 459. 

<-arth, theory of shape, movements, and 

gravity, 23. 
East Indies, 60. 
East India Company, 69. 
Eaton, Theophilus, 128. 
Edison, Thomas A., 545, 547, 548, (io:;. 
education, 158, 553-559. 

in colonies. See under each colony. 



648 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Ordinance of 1787, 233. 
during Revolution, 253. 
Catholic, 271, 347, 356, 377, 553-558. 
"School Question," 354. 
Morrill Tariff, 424. 
of negroes, 467, 555. 
American College at Rome, 489. 
in South, 502. 
of Indians, 555. 
Agricultural College, 557. 
Normal schools, 557. 
medicine and law, 558. 
in navy, 598, 608. 
Educational Association, Catholic, 558. 
Edward, Fort, 143, 200, 244. 
Edward, ship, 213, 243. 
Edwards, Jonathan, 159, 166. 
Egan, Maurice Francis, 570. 
El Cii' ney, 532, 606. 
Electoral College, 491. 
electric street cars, 545. 
Elizabeth, Queen, 49, 74. 
Ellicott's Mill, 326, 395. 
Elliot, John, 43, 120. 
Blmira, 209, 245. 

emancipation, the act of setting free 
from the power of another, 426, 
438, 463, 464, 466. 
embargo, an order of the government 
prohibiting the entry or departure 
of ships of commerce, in ports 
within its dorhinions, 269. 
Embargo Act, 292, 393. 
Emergency currency, currency in use 
since 1907, intended to prevent 
panics. These issues are preserved 
in a special vault, and to prevent 
an indiscriminate use of them, a 
graduated tax is placed upon the 
same while in circulation. The 
tax is five per cent per annum and 
is increased from one per cent per 
month until it reaches ten per cent 
per annum, 586. 
Emerson, 185, 396, 560, 565, 569. 
emigrated, to have come from one coun- 
try, state or region, to another for 
the purpose of settling there, 15. 
Emma Willard School, 558. 
encroachment, the act of entering grad- 
ually or silently upon the rights or 
possessions of another, 121. 
Endicott, 116. 
England, 69, 133, 472. 
lirst voyages, 46. 
discoveries and explorations of, 46- 

52. 
motives for colonization, 49. 



attempts at colonization, 49. 

first permanent settlement, 50, 52, 

75, 164. 
cause of failure at colonization, 51. 
maritime supremacy, 50. 
claims and occupancy, 52, 102, 145, 

167. 
and the Indians, 87, 97, 108, 119, 

136. 
and her colonies, 167. 
during the War of the Revolution, 

167-226, 502. 
refuses commercial treaty, 230. 
plunders American ships, 291, 310. 
second war with, 297-310. 
during Civil War, 409, 424, 427, 447, 

456. 
treaties with, 315, 354, 358, 395, 397. 
and Alabama claims, 480. 
ensign, a commissioned officer of the 
lowest grade in the navy corre- 
. spending to the grade of second 
lieutenant in the army. 532. 
envoy, a person appointed by a govern- 
ment to negotiate a treaty or 
transact other business, 276. 
Envoys, A, B, C, 599. 
epoch, period of time, 161. 
Era, New, of American History, 332, 

492. 
Era of Good Feeling, 314. 
Era, our present, 569. 
Er' ics son, John, 420. 
Ericson, Leif, 20, 21, 72. 
Erie, 140, 225. 
Erie Canal, 325, 395. 
Erie, Lake, 17, 56, 61, 140, 143, 304, 

305, 307, 394. 
Espejo (espfi'ho), 42, 75. 
Essex, ship, 302, 394. 
Es tril' da, Jose (hosa'), 590. 
Eutaw Springs, 222, 247. 
evacuate, to withdraw from, 207. 
Evans, Rear Admiral, 584. 
Ewing, 455. 
exhibition, centennial, 488, 524. 

cotton, 501. 
expansion. See "Territorial Expan- 
sions." 
<>x position — • 

First World's Fair in U. S., 382, 399. 
Columbian, 524, 605. 
Trans-Mississippi, 538, 606. 
Pan-American, 574. 
World's, 579, 606. 
Jamestown, 580. 
.\laska-Yukon-I*acific, 591, 607. 
Express, Pony, 373. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



649 



oxpropriate, to deprive of possession 
or proprietary rights, 4S9. 

extradition, the surrender or delivery 
of an alleged criminal by one state 
or sovereignty to anotlier having- 
jurisdiction to try the charge, :J52. 

Fabian Policy, following the tactics of 
the famous Koman (ieneral Fabius, 
who, v.hen contending with Hanni- 
bal, avoided engagements, and 
worried him with continual delays, 
206. 

Fairbanks, Charles W., 581. 

Fair Oaks, 422, 432, 457. 

Fill CO' ni o, Cardinal, 593, 608. 

Falls of St. Anthony, 61. 

Fane' uil Hall, 176, 179. 

Far'ibault' (bo') plan, 554. 

Farley, Cardinal, 593, 608. 

Farmers' Grange, 486. 

Farmer's Letters, 176. 

Farragut, David, 420, 447, 454, 457, 
459, 603. 

Fear, Cape, 53, 73. 

Federal Hall, 258, 517. 

Federal lines, 466. 

Federal offices, 468. 

Federal troops withdrawn, 493, 497. 

Federalist, 239, 247. 

Federalists, 235, 237, 247, 269, 277, 281, 
282, 293, 300, 310, 314, 315, 324. 
Hamiltonians, 265. 
elect president, 275. 

Ferdinand, Archduke, 600. 

Ferdinand, King, 28, 72. 

Fer' gii son, 216, 217. 

Field, Cyrus W., 473. 

Field. Stephen D., 545. 

flfty-four forty or fight, 355. 

filibustering expedition, a lawless mili- 
tary adventure, especially when in 
quest of plunder, 381. 

Fillmore, Millard, 369, 383. 
president, 373-377. 
sketch of life, 369. 

Finch, Francis Miles, 560. 

Finn, Father Francis, S. J., 570. 

fires, 342, 396, 485, 488, 580, 582, 603, 
607. 

Fisher, Fort, 447, 448, 459. 

fisheries, 53, 73, 125, 134, 137, 225, 
315, 352, 607. 

Fisher's Hill, 446, 459. 

fishery — 

disputes, 480, .590. 
seal, 516, 605. 
Commission, 584. 



Fitch, John, 289. 

Fitzsimmon, Thomas, 240, 241. 

Five Forks, 449, 460. 

Five Intolerable Acts, 178, 242. 

flag— 

first American, 201. 

day, 201. 

on Barry's ship, 215. 

adopted, 244. 

Confederate, 406. 

.\raerican, 599. 
Flathead Indians, 356, 397. 
floods, 517, 593, 604, 608. 
Florida, 137, 225, 356, 389, 397. 

discovered, 35, 73. 

exploration of coast, 38. 

attempted conquest of, 38, 74. 

Spanish settlement, 42. 

first Church in, 43. 

mart.yrs in, 45. 

French settlement, 55, 75. 

Spain ceded to England, 145. 

Purchase, 316, 395. 
Florida, ship, 425, 435. 
Florrissant, 356. 
flotilla, a little fleet, or a fleet of small 

vessels, 414. 
food laws. See bills. 
Foote, Commodore, 414, 416, 457. • 
Forbes, General, 142. 
Force Bill, 335. 
Force Bills, or Ku Klux Klan Act, 478, 

479, 523. 
foreign affairs, 269, 270, 275, 276, 277, 
291, 295, 319, 327, 340, 409, 425, 
426, 427, 447, 530-534, 600. 
foreign aid during Revolution, 206, 

243, 245. 
foreigners during Revolution, 198, 243. 
Fort Orange, 70. 
forty-niners, 364. 
France, 28, 69, 73, 133, 146, 224, 472. 

fishing industry, 53, 73. 

first voyage, 53. 

discoveries and explorations, 53-62. 

claims and occupancy, 61, 62, 132, 
133, 167. 

missionaries, 62-68. 

first permanent settlement, 55. 

and the Indians, 56, 57, 70, 132, 136. 

motives prompting explorations and 
colonization, 56. 

aids colonies during Revolution, 206, 
245. 

at war, 267. 

plunders American ships, 291. 

Spoliation Claims. 340. 

during the Civil War, 409. 



650 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



Francis I of France, 53, 73. 
Franciscan, 39, 40, 44, 45, 56, 61, 62, 

67, 255, 366. 
Franlilin, Benjamin, 110, 140, 154, 159, 

166, 174, 175, 180, 189, 191, 192, 

206, 215, 224, 232, 235, 253, 254, 

255, 549, 557. 
Frazier's Farm, 423. 
Fredericksburg, 425, 458. 
Freedmen, 465, 466, 467. 
Freedman's Bureau Bill, 466, 478, 602. 
freeman, a member of a town, or state, 

who has the right of suffrage, 352. 
Freemason, 377. 
Freeport Doctrine, 385. 
freewillers, 149. 
Fremont, John C, 361, 383, 384, 398, 

411, 421, 422, 423, 426. 
French and Indian War, 62, 138, 147, 

166, 169. 
French Empire in Mexico, 472. 
French fleet, 208. 

French Panama Canal Company, 578. 
Frob ish er, 48, 75. 
Frolic, ship, 303, 394. 
Fron' te na€, Count, 58, 59. 
Frontenac, Fort, 61. 
frontier, that part of a country which 

fronts or faces another country or 

an unsettled region, 297. 
Fugitive Slave Law, 273, 369, 370, 373, 

378, 392. 
Fuller, Melville W., 592. 
Fulton, Robert, 289, 393. 
Fundamental Orders, the, 127. 
fur trade, 55, 56, 60, 70, 100, 101, 125, 

127, 

Gadsden, General James, 382. 

Gadsden Purchase, 382, 399. 

Gag Law, 339. 

Gage, General, 181, 184, 187. 

Gaines, Fort, 448. 

Gaines Mill, 423. 

Gal i le' o, 23, 24. 

Gal' la tin, Albert, 284, 295. 

Gallitzin (gale'tsen). Prince Priest, 

272, 322. 
Galveston, Texas, 436, 
Gar a con' tie, 65. 

Giir'dai', the name of a bishopric in 
southern Greenland, tenth century, 
21, 
Gardner's Island, 95. 
Garfield, James A. — '■ 

president, 499-500, 603. 

sketch of life, 499. 

assassination, 499, 604. 



Garrison, William Lloyd, 339. 396. 
Gas pee', 117, 242. 

Gates, General, 188, 203, 216, 221, 244. 
Gavazzi (gaviit'se), ex-Carmelite, 375. 
Geary Act, 542, 605. 
General Court, 117, 123, 171. 
General Slocum disaster, 580. 
Genet (zhena'), 267, 268, 275. 
Geneva Arbitration Commission, 480. 
Geneva Award, 480. 
Genoa, 21, 46. 

gentry, people of education and good 
breeding in England ; those be- 
tween yeomen, or common people, 
and the nobility, 81. 
George I of England, 166. 
George II of England, 96. 137, 140. 
George III of England, 166, 169, 171, 
207, 242. 

statue of, 192. 
George, Lake, 143. 
Georgetown LTniversity, 271, 556. 
Georgia, 147, 222, 389, 470. 

grant, 96. 

name, 96. 

first settlement, 96. 

object, 97, 166. 

early history, 96-98. 

government, 98. 

religion, 98. 
"slavery, 98. 

during Civil War, 433, 441. 
Georgia, ship, 425. 
Germantown, battle, 198, 244. 
Gerry, Elbridge, 276, 300. 
Ger vase', Brother Thomas, 87. 
(iettysburg. Address, 431, 458. 
Gettysburg, battle, 429, 436, 445, 458. 
Gheht, Treaty of, 310. 
Gibault (gebo'), 210, 2.55. 
Gibbons. Cardinal, 509, 569, 604. 
Gila (he' la) River, 363, 382. 
Gilbert, Sir Humphrey. 49, 75. 
Gilchrist, William H.. 559. 
Gilmore, General, 436. 
Gilmore, Patrick Sarsfield, 560. 
Glendale, 423. 
God' win, 255. 
Goffe, 122. 
gold— 

in California, 364, 375, 387, 398. 

Yukon Klondike, 387, 398, 538, .579. 
Goldsboro, 443. 
(Jold Standard Act, 527. 
Go' men (meth), Es te' viln, 38. 
Good Hope, Cape of, 24, 33, 38, 48, 69, 

72. 
Goodyear, Charles, 545. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



651 



Gor'ges, 112, 122, 125. 
Gor'ton, 130. 

Gos' nold, Bartholomew, 51, 52, 75, 70. 
Goth' i€, of or pertaining to the style 
of architecture so-called ; charac- 
terized by pointed arches, steep 
roofs, large windows, and gener- 
ally great height. 502. 
government — 

policy of compromise, 391. 
of southern states overthrown, 409. 
military, 468, 469. 
departments, 230, 200. 
Grand Army of the Republic, 452. 
Grand caiion, 39, 74. 
"grandfather clause," 470. 
Grand Model, 91, 95. 
Grant, General, 471, 474, 603. 

in Mexican War, .359, 303, 443, 452, 

455. 
at Belmont, 411. 
at Forts Henry and Donclson, 414- 

416, 454, 457. 
at Shiloh, 410. 457. 
at Vicksburg, 418, 431, 4.32, 435, 454, 

458, 460. 
at Chattanooga, 435. 
commander-in-chief, 435, 440-459, 

409. 
campaign around Richmond or 
"Overland Campaign," 443-445, 
447, 449, 450, 4.59, 460. 
at Appomattox. 449, 454, 400. 
president. 470-490, 602. 
sketch of life, 470. 
re-election, 479, 603. 
and Indians, 487, 555. 
death, 509. 004. 
dedication of tomb, 538, 605. 
gravity, law of, that force by which all 
bodies or particles of matter tend 
toward each other, 24. ' 
Gray. 548. 

Gray, Captain, 273, 392. 
Great Britain. See England. 
Great Eastern, ship, 47;!. 
Great Kanawha River, 250. 
Great Law, Penn's, 109. 
great men — 

critical period. 232, 235. 332. 
Revolutionary period, 255. 
before Civil War, 297, 332. 
Greeley. Horace, 479. 490. 
Green Bay, 58. .59, 05. 
Greenbrier, River, 250. 
Greene, 130. 

Greene, General, 181, 188, 216, 221, 
240, 246. 



masterly retreat, 221. 
recovery of the South, 222. 

(Jreene, Roger, 92. 

(ireen Mountain Boys, 186. 

Cireenough, Horatio, 563. 

Gregorian Chant, a kind of unisonous 
or plain music according to the 
eight celebrated Church modes as 
arranged and prescribed by Pope 
Gregory in the sixth century, 561. 

(iren' ville. Sir Richard, 49. 

(iriffin, ship, 61. 

Grijalva (grehiil'va), 36, 37. 

Groco, 590. 

Gua da loupe' HI dal' go, a suburb of 
the city of Mexico famous as con- 
taining the shrine of "Our Lady 
of Guadaloupe," 303, ,304, 398. 

<Juadaloupe Island, 62. 

Guam, 533, 5t9, 606. 

guer ril' la, an irregular mode of carry- 
ing on war ; the constant attacks 
by independent bands, 535. 

(Juer ri ere', ship, 302, 394. 

(Juggenberger, Rev. A., S. J., 571. 

(Juiana, Dutch, 71. 

(Juiana, French, 62. 

Guilford Courthouse, 222, 246. 

Guiteau (gee to')," Charles, 499, 004. 

Gus ta' vus A dol' phus, 100. 

Gutenberg, 72. 

habeas corpus, writ of, a writ issued by 
a court directing a person impris- 
oned to appear before it that the 
legality of his confinement may be 
determined, 4.38, 446, 457, 462, 
479. 
Hague, The, 5.30, 583. 

Tril)unal, 583, 590, 600, 607. 
Haiti, 30, 31, 38, 72, 484. 
Hale, John Parker, 377. 
Halo, Nathan, 195. 
Half Moon, ship, 09. 
Halifax, 190. 193. 480. 
llalleck, Henrv W., 411, 414, 423, 435, 

457. 
Hamilton, Alexander, 2.">1, 235, 255, 
259, 260, 312. 
papers on the government, 2.'!2. 
leader of Federalists, 237, 205, 200. 
d(>fender of Constitution. 238. 
contributor to "Federalist." 2:!9. 
financial plan of, 260. 
views on constitutional construction, 

265. 
killed in duel, 287, 393. 
Hamilton, Colonel, 209. 



652 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Hamlin, Hannibal, SSS. 
Hampton, General, 305. 
Hampton Koads, the rear portion of 
Chesapeake Bay near Fortress 
Monroe, Virginia, 418, 420, 457, 
584. 
Hancock, John, 184, 192, 235, 237. 
Hancock, Winfleld, 498, 510. 
Handel and Haydn Society, 500. 
Harper's Ferry, 386, 405, 411, 424, 457. 
Harrison, Benjamin, 511, 519. 

president, 512-518, 522, 604. 

sketch of life, 512. 
Harrison, William, 297, 305, 393, 397. 

president, 350, 351. 

sketch of life, 350. 

death, 351, 397. 
Harrison's Landing, 423. 
Hartford, 126, 127. 
Hartford Convention, 310, 324, 389, 

394. 
Harvard, John, 123. 
Harvard University, 557. 
Hatteras, Cape, 420. 
Hatteras, Fort, 411. 
Hatteras, Inlet, 411, 412. 
Havana, 399, 531, 606. 
Ha'verhill, 136. 
Hawaiian Islands, 579. 

revolution, 522, 605. 
Hawkins, Sir John, 46, 75. 
Hawthorne, Nathaniel, 395, 566. 
Hay-Pauncefote treaty, 374, 57S, 597. 
Hay, Secretary, 374, 537, 576, 578, 581, 

585. 
Hayes, Rutherford B., 486. 

election of, 491. 

president, 491-498, 603. 

sketch of life, 492. 
Haymarket Square, 509. 
Ilayne, Robert, 333, 477. 
Heart's Content, 473. 
Hendricks, Thomas A., 505, 506, 510, 

604. 
Hen' ne pin, Father, 61, 62. 
Henrietta, Maria, Queen, 86. 
Henry II of France, 73. 
Henry IV of France, 55, 86. 
Henry VII of England, 46, 72. 
Henry VIII of England, 73. 
Henry, Cape, 77. 
Henry, Fort, 414. 
Henry, Patrick, 171, 172, 174, ISO, 

209, 2.35, 237. 
Henry, Prince, 23, 26. 
Her' ki mer, Oeneral, 201. 
Hessians, troops hired liy Enslaud from 
several German principalities. The 



Hessians, many of whom (all of 
the three thousand Westpbalians) 
were Catholic, did their duty in 
America bravely and faithfully, 
with loyalty to a service from 
which they could expect no profit 
of their own. The charge some- 
times made that they were cruel 
barbarians is false. They fought 
because they could not help it. 
The shame belonged to their 
princes, and not to themselves, 191, 
197, 243. 

Il'i a wii' tha, the hero of an American 
Indian legend immortalized in tlie 
poem Hiawatha, 59. 

hierarchy, a body of persons, bishops, 
and priests, to whom is entrusted 
the government of the Church, 517. 

hieroglyphic, character in picture writ- 
ing, as of the ancient Egyptians or 
American Indians, 37. 

Hill, 563. 

historians, familiar, 568. 

history — 
definition, 5. 
ancient, 5. 
medieval, 5. 
modern, 5. 
sacred, 5. 
profane, 5. 
ITnited States, 5. 
missionary contribution to, 44. 

Hobart, Garret A., 526, 606. 

llobkirk's Hill, 222. 

Hobson, Richmond, 532, 606. 

Holland, 69, 71, 99, 136. 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 303, 396, 560, 
56(>. 

Holmes. William, 126. 

Holy Alliance, 319, 347. 

Holy City. 346. 

110' mer, Winslow, 563. 

Homestead, 518. 

Homestead Bill, 406. 

Hong-Kong, 579. 

Hon' o lu' lu, 579. 

Hood, General, 441, 443, 459. 

Hooker, Joseph, 363, 425, 429, 435, 
447, 458. 

Hooker, Thomas, 126. 

Hopkins, Stephen, 192. 

Ilopkinson, Joseph, 277, 500. 

Horn, Cape, 364, 578. 

Hornet, ship, 303, .394. 

Horseshoe Bend. 307, 394. 

Hospital nuns, 68. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



653 



IIouso of F.iirgcsscs, 82, 8:'., IK!, 104, 
171. ' 

ilouso of Commons, one of tlie divi- 
sions of the Englisli Parliament 
consisting of tlie representatives 
of tlie common people, 82. 

House of Lords, one of the divisions of 
the English Parliament consisting 
of Lords spiritual (bishops and 
archbishops). Lords temporal 
(hereditary or created nobles), 82. 

Houston, Samuel, 340, :>96. 

Howe, Admiral, 19.3. 

Howe, Ellas, .■'.97, 545. 

Howe, General, 187, 190, 103, 194, 198, 
199, 203, 205. 207. 

Howe, .Julia Ward, 560. 

Howe, Lord. 214. 

llowlaiid Island, 536. 

Hubbard, 563. 

Hudson Bay, 70, 104. 

Fludson, Henry, 70, 71, 99, 126, 104. 

Hudson River, 53, 70, 100, IC.l. 19:!. 

Hudson Strait, 70. 

Hu er ta (ware'ta), 598. 

Hughes, Archbishop, 353, 412, 45.", 
459, 489, 567. 

Hu' gue nuts, 41, 42, 54, 74, 75, 94. 

Hull, Isaac, 302, 393. 

Hull, William, 300. 

Hunt, 455. 

Hunt, Richard M., 562. 

Hunter, General, 411, 426, 445. 

Huron Indians, 62, 64, 65, 66. 

Huron, Lake, 56, 58, 61, 66. 

Hutchinson, Anne, 119, 125, 130. 

Idaho, 517, 605. 
Illinois Indians, 59, 63. 
Illinois River, 59, 61. 
Illinois State, 60, 62, 210, 318. 
illumination and heating, 547. 
I mil' go Mun' di, 26. 
immigration, 100, 541, 605. 

Catholic from Ireland, 281. 

(1830-1840), 347. 

(1815-1848), 317. 

Chinese, 486, 495, 502, 604. 

.Japanese, 589. 
impeachment, the calling to account of 
a public offlcer for bad manage- 
ment of any business, 471, 484, 508, 
602. 
impressment of seamen, 292, 296, 300. 
In'€as. 38. 
income tax, 596. 
indentured servants, 81, 149. 
Independence Hall, 185. 



Independence, steps toward, 190. 
Independent National party. See 

Greenback. 
Indei)eiident treasury, a private place 
to keep the money of the govern- 
ment when not in use, originally 
provided for during Van Buren's 
administration. It relieves the 
government of depending upon the 
banks for pul)lic money, 345, 349, 
351, 3.58. 
India, 53, 56. 
trade with, 21. 
new route to, .■'..'; 
Indian Ocean, 25, 48, 73. 
Indiana, 210, .si:!, 394, 439. 
Indians — 

name and origin, 15. 
characteristics, 15. 
manners and customs, 15. 
religion, 16. 

three great families, 17. 
Maskoki, 17, 97. 

Iroquois, or Six Nations, 17, 54, 65, 
00. 70, 100, 101, 134, 135, 136, 138, 
143, 209. 
Algonquins, 17, 101, 115, 135. 
degrees of civilization, 17. 
mounds and mound builders, 19. 
first Christians, 31. 
treatment by Spanish, 31, 35, 42. 
Protector General of, 35. 
in Mexico and California, 36, 37, 

366. 
South American, 38. 
in colonies. See under each colony. 
Pueblos, 39. 

conversion and civilization, 44, 45. 
treatment by French, 50, 57, 70. 
Illinois, 59, 63. 

Sioux, 61, 436, 488, 518, 603, 605. 
Huron, 62, 64, 65, 66. 
Abnakis, 62, 63, 66, 189, 254. 
Mohawks 63, 64, 60. 
< >ttawas, 03. 
Chippewa, 64, 60. 
Mohegans, 66, 121, 120. 
treatment by Dutch, 70, 100. 
and Smith. 79. 

treatment by ]\Iaryland colonists, 87. 
Tuscaroras, 9:!. 
treatment by English, 97, 108, 110, 

121. 
Wampanoags, 115. 
Narragan setts, 115, 121, 129. 
Wars, 142, 266, 307, 315, 341, 396, 

487, 488. 
Penobscots, 189. 



654 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Cherokee, 209, 329. 
Creek. 307, 329, 341, 516. 
Pequot, 129, 165, 
in the West, 483, 487. 
Seminoles, 315, 341, 395, 516. 
massacres, 209, 488, 605. 
Black Hawk, 341, 396. 
education, 555. 
Flathead, 356, 397. 
peace policy, 487, 555. 
reservations, 487, 488. 
Bureau of Catholic Missions, 555. 
industrial conditions, new, 493. 
industries, 544. 
Inflation Bill, 485. 
Inness, George, 563. 

Inquisition, an ecclesiastical tribunal 
established to examine and pro- 
nounce judgment in case of here- 
tics, 24. 
Insurgent, ship, 277. 
insurrection, a rising against an estab- 
lished government ; rebellion, 231. 
Intercolonial Wars, 132-146. 
causes, 134. 

comparative strength of rivals, 1.54. 
internal improvement, national, 324, 

325, 345, 406, 424. 
international, between or among na- 
tions, 311. 
Interstate, existing between or includ- 
ing different states ; Commerce Act, 
507, 004. 
intrastate, existing within a state, 507. 
inventions and discoveries, 270, 289, 

393, 544-548. 

Iowa, 59, 62, 366, 398, 436. 

Ireland, sons of, 240. 

Ironclad Oath, 470. 

Ironclads, battle between, 418-420, 457, 

495. 
Iroquois, or Six Nations, 17, 54, .")5, 58, 

65, 66, 70, 100, 101, 134, 135, i:!6, 

138, 139, 143. 209. 
irrigation, .~>78, 606. 
Irving, Washington, 32, .395, 565. 
Isabella, Haiti, 31, 72. 
Isabella, Queen, 28, 31, 72, 73. 
Island No. 10, 416, 457. 
Italy, 24, 515. 
i iV ka, battle, 417, 457. 

Jack, Captain, 488. 

Jackson, Andrew, 309, 315. 323, 357, 

394, 395, 468, 475. 
president, 331-343, 344, 396, 564. 
sketch of life, 331. 



notable facts, 332. 

re-elected, 336, 396. 
Jackson, Charles, 558. 
Jackson, Fort, 420, 432. 
Jackson, Helen Hunt, 568. 
Jackson, Aliss., 418, 432, 433. 
Jackson, Stonewall, 363, 405, 410, 422, 

424, 429, 454, 457, 458. 
Jacksonians, 323, 324. 
Jamaica, 31, 35, 72. 
James I of England, 77, 112, 116, 164. 
James II of England, 102, 103, 135, 

165. 
James River, 38, 423. 
Jamestown, 50, 52, 75, 77, 78, 79, 80, 

87. 
Jamestown Exposition, 580. 
Japan, treaty with, 382, .399, 589, 608. 
Japanese Immigration, 589. 
Jasper, Sergeant, 190, 216. 
Jay, John, 207, 224. 239, 260, 269. 
Jay's Treaty, 269, 275, 392. 
Jefferson, Fort, 390. 
Jefferson, Thomas, 314. 

views on constitutional constructi6n, 
265. 

Republican leader, 265, 266. 

vice-president, 275-281. 

president, 282-294, 393. 

sketch of life, 284. 

re-election, 287. 

death, 329, 395. 
Jesuits, 44, 45, 55, 56, 57, 62, 64, 65, 

67, 86, 88, 90. 
Jetties, Mississippi, 495. 
Jogues, Father, 64, 65, 66, 101. 
Johns Hopkins University, 558. 
Johnson, Andrew, 447, 460, 469, 471, 
475, 602. 

sketch of life, 461. 

president, 461-475, 602. 

impeachment, 471, 508, 602. 

death, 490. 603. 
Johnson, Eastman, 563. 
Johnson, John, 209. 
Johnson, Richard M., 344. 
Johnson, Sir William, 143, 209. 
Johnston, Albert Sidney, 414, 416, 454, 

457. 
Johnston, Joseph E., 421, 422, 432, 435, 

440, 441, 443, 449. 450, 455. 
Johnstown flood, 517, 604. 
Joint High Commission, 491. 
Joliet, 58, 59, 60, 62. 
Jones, Jacob, 303. 
Jones, Paul, 152, 214, 246. 
Juarez, Juan (huiin' huiir'eth), 39, 
74. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



655 



Jun' to, a number of men combined ior 
party intrigue, 328. 

Kanawha River, 139. 

Kansas, 40, 45, 74, 388, 309. 

Kansas, civil war in, 380, 399. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 378, 399. 

Kns kas' ki a, 63, 210. 

Kcjir' ny, Philip, 454, 455. 

Kearny, Stephen W., 361, 398. 

Kear' siirge, 447, 459. 

Kemys, Edward, 564. 

Ken' drick, Archbishop, 377. 

Ken' e saw Mt., 441, 459. 

Kennebec River, 52, 62, 68, 112, 125. 

Kentucky, 209. 249, 273, 310, 392, 405, 

411, 412, 415, 417, 458. 
Keweenaw Bay, 65. 
Key, David M., 495. 
Key, Francis Scott, 309, 560. 
Key West, 390. 
Kidd, William, 95. 
Kieft, Governor, 64, 101. 
Kinetoscope, 548. 
King George's War, 137. 
King Philip's War, 121, 131, 165. 
King, William R., 378. 
King William's War, 135, 166. 
king's friends, 170, 171, 180, 224. 
King's Mountain, battle of, 217, 221, 

246. 
Kingston, 61. 
Klondike, 338, 579, 580, 
Knights of Labor, 494. 
Knights of the Golden Circle, 438. 
Knowles, Brother John, 87. 
Knownothingism, 375, 399. 
Knox, Henry, 259, 260. 
Knox, Secretary, 589. 
Knoxville, 435, 459. 
Kos gi us' ko, 198, 239. 
Kryn, Chief, 60. 
KuKliixKlan, 478, 602. 

La Boeuf, 140. 

Labrador, 46. 

Lachine, 135. 

Ladies of the Sacred Heart, 322. 

Lady Rebecca, 80. 

Lsx Fiirge', John, 563. 

La' fa yette'. Marquis (markwis), 198, 
208, 223, 2.39, 292, 320, 395. 

Lake Brie battle, 382. 

Lakes, Great, 61, 62, 145, 225. 

Lalle miind', Father, 64. 

land bounty, in the United States pub- 
lic lands set apart as a compensa- 
tion for military services, 232. 



land grants, 486, 498. 
lands, national, 579. 

system, 232. 

Northwest Territory, 232, 266. 

states relinquish claims, 232. 

western reserve, 232. 

sale of, 337, 406, 579. 

Morrill Tariff, 424. 

grants to corporations, 480. 
Lane, Ralph, 49. 
La Point, 63. 
La Prairie, 66. 
Lii Rii bi' dii, Franciscan monastery not 

far from Palos, 30. 
La Salle', Robert, 60, 01, 62, 138. 
Las Cii' sjis, Bartholomew, 35, 73. 
Las Casas, Luis, 529. 
Latin America, 514. 
Latter-Day Saints, 346. 
Lau don niere (lo' don yar'), 55, 75. 
La vjil'. Bishop, 66. 
Lawrence, Captain, 304. 
Lawrence, Kansas, 379. 
laws. See bills, 
league, about three miles, 32. 
Leavenworth, Fort, 361. 
Lecompton Constitution, 380. 
Lee, .Arthur, 212. 
Lee, Charles, 190, 195, 196, 208. 
Lee, Fort, 193, 195, 243. 
Lee, Henry, 212, 213, 217, 222, 454. 
Lee, Richard Henry, 191, 235. 
Lee, Robert B., 213, 303, 405, 433, 454, 
490, 003. 

in command, 422. 

in Seven Days' battles, 423. 

first invasion of North, 424, 425, 457, 
458. 

second invasion of North, 429-431, 
432, 458. 

campaign around Richmond, or Over- 
land campaign, 440, 443-445, 447, 
449, 450, 459, 460. 

surrender, 449, 4.56, 460. 
Lees of Virginia, 212. 
Leeds, 171. 

Legal Tender Act, 439. 
legation, the official residence or place 
of business of the chief of a diplo- 
matic mission, .537. 
Leis' ler, Jacob, 102, 160. 
Leisler's Rebellion, 103, 166. 
Le Moyne, Father, 67. 
Leo XIII, Pope, 585, 603, 607. 
Leopard-Chesapeake Insult, 292, 297, 

393. 
Leopard, ship, 292, 393. 
Leopoldina Society, 347. 



656 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



Le vant', 304. 

Lewis, Meriwether, 288, 393, 579. 

Lexington, 181, 182, 184, 185, 217, 242, 

406. 
Lexington, Mo., 411. 
Lexington, ship, 213. 
Leyden, 113. 

libel, a malicious publication intended 
to expose another to public hatred 
or contempt, 354. 
Liberal Republican party, 479. 
Liberator, 339, 396. 
Liberia, 319, 395. 
Liberty bell, 192. 
Liberty Laws, Personal, 374, 398. 
Library, Congressional, 538, 605. 
life — 

in New England, 117, 123, 124, 120, 
162, 163. 

in the South, 77, 84, 89, 95, 117, 123, 
162, 163. 

in the Middle Colonies, 162, 163. 

after Revolution, 252. 
light from gas, 545. 

light infantry, a body of soldiers on foot 
selected and trained for rapid 
movement, 221. 
Lii' li en thiil, Otto, 548. 
Li' lit uo kfl lii' ni". Queen, 522, 605. 
Li' ma, 38. 

Lincoln, Abraham, 386, 388, 461, 462, 
463, 472, 564. 

president, 400-460. 

inauguration, 400, 456. 

inaugural address, 400. 

re-election, 446, 459. 

assassination, 451, 460. 
Lincoln, Benjamin, 212, 215, 216, 223. 
Lincoln-Douglas debate, 385, 399. 
Line of Demarcation, 32, 72. 
Lisbon, 25, 33. 
literature — ■ 

Colonial, 158. 

during Revolution, 253, 255. 

after Revolution, 564. 
Little Belt, ship, 297, 393. 
Little Crow, chief, 436. 
Live Stock Combinations, 550. 
Livingston, Robert, 191, 258, 285. 
Locke, 91. 

10 €o fO' CO, a friction match invented 
1834; nickname of the Democratic 
party, 350. 
London Company, 51, 52. 
Lon' don der' ry, 125. 
Long Island, battle of, 194, 243. 
Longfellow, 21, 59, 114, 120, 141, 185, 
396, 565, 569, 



Longstreet, General, 363, 435, 459. 

Lookout Mountain, 435, 458. 

Lo' pez, NUr gis' 0, 381, 399. 

Loretto, 272. 

Los Angeles, "the angels," abridged from 

the long Spanish name meaning 

"Our Lady, the Queen of Angels," 

362, 366. 
Louis XIV of France, 61, 135. 
Louis XVI of Prance, 206, 215, 267, 
Louisburg, 137, 141, 142. 
Louisiana, 61, 225, 392, 463. 

purchase of, 285, 289, 358, 366, 393, 

579, 607. 
state, 313, 389, 393. 
Louisville, 417, 424. 
Lovelace, 103. 
Lowell, Francis, 271. 
Lowell, James R., 360, 397, 566, .569. 
Lower Counties, on Delaware, 106. 
Loyal League, 478. 
Lummis, Charles P., 571. 
Lundy, Benjamin, 339. 
Lundy's Lane, 307, 394. 
Luther, Martin, 73. 

Lu zon', 535. > 

Lynch, Dominic, 241. 
Lyon, Captain, 410, 456. 

Ma€k' i nac, 58, 63. 
Ma eon Bill, 296. 
Madero, 590, 598. 
Madeira Islands, 53. 
Madison, James, 81, 232, 255, 261, 279, 
315. 
author of Constitution, 235. 
leader of Federalists, 237. 
author of "Federalist," 239. 
-president, 295-313, 393. 
sketch of life, 295, 
re-election, 300. 
death, 342, 396. 
Ma dras', 137. 

Mil' fi a, a secret organization of Ital- 
ians, committing acts of violence 
as murder and blackmail. Its 
members are bound by oath to obey 
the commands of the order and 
must shield the crimes committed 
by it, 515. 
Ma gel' Ian, 36, 37, 48, 69, 73, 
Ma gru' der, 436. 
Maine, 52, 01, 62, 112, 122, 125, 134, 

136, 318, 395. 
Maine, ship, 530, 606. 
maize, 50, 79, 90. 
Mai' vern Hill, 423. 
Manassas Junction, 410. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



657 



Manchester, 171. 

maneuver, a military or naval move- 
ment, 205. 
Manhattan, !>!). 

manifesto, a i)ul)lic declaration of a 
person in authority, showing his in- 
tentions in reference to some act, 
381. 
Manila, 5.32, 579, 606. 
Mann, Horace, 557. 
nan-of-war, an armed vessel belonging 

to a navy, 213. 
manufacturing, 271, 293. 
colonial. 169. 
after the Revolution, 251. 
and War of 1812, 311. 
Miir' CO Po' lo, 23, 26, 36, 72. 
Miir €6' ni, 547. 
Miir €os, Fri' ar, 39, 40, 45, 74. 
Marie Antoinette, 267. 
Marietta. 266. 
Marion, 217, 222. 
Marion, Fort, 561. 

marque and reprisal, letters of a license 
granted by a government to a pri- 
vate person to fit out an armed 
ship, to cruise at sea and make 
prizes of the enemy's ships and 
merchandise, 408. 
Marquette' (kef), Father, 58, 60, 62, 

63, 65, 138. 
Marshall, James W., 364. 
Marshall, John, 81, 276, 280, 287, 342. 
Marshall, Thomas Riley, 595. 
Martha's Vineyard, 51, 75. 
Martin, Homer, 563. 
Miirti'nez (th), Father, 45. 
Martinique, 62. 
martyrs, 40. 45, 64, 74, 75. 
Maryland, 57, 86, 232, 249. 
name, 86. 
grant, 85, 86, 106. 
first settlement, 86, 165. 
early history, 85-90. 
purpose, 85. 

treatment of Indians, 87. 
character of settlers, 85, 87. 
religion, education, manners, cus- 
toms, 88, 89. 
government, 89. 
three notable facts, 90. 
Carmelite Nuns. 271. 
during Civil War, 405, 412, 424. 426. 
Mas ko' ki, or Mobilian Indians, 17, 97. 
Mason, 125, 129. 
Mason and Dixon's line, 89, 111, 147, 

149, 166, 256, 319, 404. 
Ma' son and Sli dell', 411, 



Mason, Charles, 89. 

Mason, William, 559. 

Mass, Holy Sacrifice of, 63, 157. 

first in America, 31, 72. 

first in United States, 38. 

first in New France, 57. 

Father .Toques, 64. 

first and second in Maryland, 86. 

first in New York, 103. 

first in Philadelphia, 110. 

first in New England, 126. 
Massachusetts, 52, 75, 76, 125, 129, 
136, 160, 232, 249. 

grant, 112. 

purpose of settlement, 113. 

first settlements, 113, 116, 117, 164. 

early history, 112-131. 

name, 114. 

Indians, 114, 115, 120, 121. 

religion, 112, 116, 119, 122. 

government, 113, 116, 125, 165. 

character of settlers, 114, 123. 

education, 123. 

manners and customs, 125. 

circular letter of, 176. 
Massachusetts Bay Colony, 115, 116, 

117, 128, 160. 
Massachusetts Bill, 178. 
Massacre on the Little Big Horn, 488, 

605. 
Massacres, Indian, 209. 
Mas' sa soit, 114, 115, 120, 130. 
Mat a mo' ras, 360. 
Matb' er. Cotton, 120, 159. 
Ma-feh' er, Increase, 159. 
Matb' er, Richard, 159. 
Max 1 mil' ian, 472, 602. 
Mayfiower, 113. 
McAllister, Fort, 442. 
McClellan, George B., 363, 406, 410, 
415, 420, 421, 422, 423, 424, 425, 
454, 457, 458, 509, 604. 
McCloskey, Cardinal, 489, 509, 603, 

604. 
McCormick, George, 538. 
McDonough, Commodore, 309. 
McDowell, Edward A., 559. 
McDowell, Irvin, 409, 421, 422, 423, 

456. 
McHenry, Fort, 308. 
McKenna, Rev, John, 157. 
McKinley Tariff Bill, 513, 588, 605. 
McKlnley, William, 526. 

president, 526-539, 574, 605. 

sketch of life, 526. 

re-elected, 574, 606. 

assassination, 574, 606. 
McLean, 385. 



658 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



McMahon, 455. 

McMaster, John B., 571. 

Meade, George E., 429, 458, 490. 

Meade, L. G., 564. 

Meagher, Thomas F., 455. 

Measures of Congress. See Bills. 

Mechanicsville, 423. 

Medford, 184. 

medicine and law, 558. 

Meigs, Fort, 305. 

Me' la, 34. 

Melville, David, 545. 

Memphis, 41, 417, 418, 432, 457, 495. 

Me nard'. Father, 65. 

Men di e' ta, 44. 

Me nen' dez (deth), 55, 75. 

Menlo Park, 547. 

Merrimac, coaling vessel, 532. 

Merrimac River, 116, 125, 422. 

Merrimac, ship, 418, 457, 606. 

Merritt, General, 532. 

Methodism, a form of religion founded 
in 1739 by John and Charles Wes- 
ley, so called for their methodical 
strictness in religion, 98. 

Mexican border warfare, 590, 598. 

Mexico, 36, 37, 40, 73, 74, 340, 395, 
602. 
Mexican Congress, 367. 
French set up Republic in, 472. 
war with, 354, 358, 363, 369, 376, 

377, 378, 397. 
treaty with, 363, 382, 398. 
trouble with, 598, 608. 

Mexico, city of, 363, 398. 

Mexico, gulf of, 60, 61. 

Mi a' mi, Great River, 140. 

Michigan, 62, 63. 65, 342, .396, 603. 

Michigan, Lake, 58, 61, 64. 

Michigan River, 63. 

Michigan University, 558. 

Middlesex, a county in Massachusetts ; 
also one in Connecticut, 185. 

Midway Island, 536. 

Milan Decree, 292, 393. 

Miles, General, 518, 606. 

military — 

protection, 467. 
government, 468, 469, 479. 

militia, the untrained state troops in 
contrast to the regular trained 
forces under the control of Con- 
gress, 216. 

Mill Springs, 414. 

Milwaukee, 483. 

Mimms, Fort, 307. 

mine workers, 576. 

mining industries, 497. 



Minnesota, 62, 388, 399, 436, 603. 
Mint, United States, 264. 
Min' u it, Peter, 99, 101, 106. 
Minute-men, 181, 185, 217. 
Mlquelon (me ke Ion'), 62. 
missionaries — 

Spanish, 44, 366. 

French, 56, 57, 62-68. 

in the West, 272. 

among Indians, 322. 

to Oregon, 355, 397. 

in Mexico and California, 366. 
Missionary Ridge, 435, 455, 458. 
Mississippi, 318, 389, 394, 470, 474. 
Mississippi River, 41, 58, 60, 61, 62, 
68, 74, 225, 252, 285, 413, 435. 
436, 457, 458. 
Mississippi Valley, 61, 132. 
Missouri, 318, 395, 405, 411, 412, 418, 
426. 

Compromise, 318, 395. 
Mistress of the Seas, 190. 
Mobile, 61, 435, 436, 447, 459, 
Mo' d6€, 487, 603. 
Mohawk Indians, 63, 64, 66. 
Mohawk Valley, 101. 
Mo he' gan Indians, 66, 121, 129, 
Mo 10 kai', 523. 
money — 

in colonies, 87, 153, 337. 

during the Revolution, 198, 220. 

after the Revolution, 230, 231, 

Hamilton's scheme, 260. 

mint, 264. 

rag, 337. 

surplus loaned to States, 338. 

independent treasury, 345, 849, 351, 

- 358. 

greenbacks, 407, 439, 457. 

gold, 407, 485, 580. 

silver, 485, 580. 

during Civil War, 407, 439, 457. 

issue in campaign of 1868, 475. 

borrowed, 477. 

Inflation Bill, 485. 

Specie Payment, 485, 497, 603. 

currency regulation, 492, 518, 586. 

Bland-Allison Bill, 496, 514, 603. 

Mills' Tariff Bill, 510. 

Sherman's Silver Coinage Bill, 514, 
520, 525, 605. 

Monetary Commission, 527. 

Gold Standard Act, 527. 

panic of 1907, 585. 

emergency currency, 586. 

postal savings system, 588, 607. 

income tax, 596. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



659 



Administration Currency, or Owon- 
(ilass Bill, .^no, 608. 

Monitor, 41!), 457. 

INIonnioutli, hattio of, 2(»S, 24.">. 

MonongalK'la IJivcr, 140, 240. 

nionot)ol.v, exclusive poss(>Hsion or con- 
trol, n.-.. 

Monroe Doctrine, 319, :'>{)5, 473, 523. 
violation of, 472. 

Monroe, Fortress, 411, 412, 450. 

Monroe, .James, 81, 276, 2S5, 295. 
president. 314-322, 394, 395. 
sketch of life, 314. 
death, 342, 396. 

Monsignore (mon se nyo' ra), an eccle- 
siastical dignity bestowed by the 
Pope, entitling the bearer to social 
and domestic rank at the Papal 
court, 375. 

Montana, 517, 605. 

Mont€;ilni', Marquis (mar' kwis), 141, 
142, 143, 145, 166. 

Mon te rey, 360, 366, 398. 

Mon' te zu' ma, 37, 362. 

Montgomery, General, 189. 

Montreal, 54, 68, 74, 189, 25.3. 

Moors, the Moors, followers of Moham- 
med, originally came from Arabia, 
whence they swept along the north- 
ern coast of Africa as far west as 
the Strait of Gibraltar. Crossing 
the strait, they conquered the 
greater part of the Spanish penin- 
sula. They, however, lost power 
before the Christian kingdoms of 
Aragon and Castile, and finally 
their possessions were limited to 
the kingdom of Granada, which 
surrendered to Ferdinand, the 
Catholic (1492). The expelled 
Moors settled in northern Africa 
and eventually developed into the 
piratical states of Barbary, 27. 

Moran, 563. 

Morgan, Daniel, 189, 203, 216, 221. 

Morgan, Fort, 448. 

Mormons, 346, .396, 397, 523. 

Morrill Tariff, 424. 

Morris, George Pope, 560. 

Morris, Robert, 198. 

Morse, Samuel F. B., 397. 490. 

Morton, Levi P., 512. 

Morton, William, 558. 

Mot' ley. .Tohn, 569, 571. 

Mo' to ii' ni a, 44. 

Mo' tu Pro' pri o, the name given to cer- 
tain papal rescripts on account of 
the clause motu proprio (of his 



own accord) used in the document, 
561. 

Moul' trie. Colonel, 190. 

Moultri(\ Fort, 190, 216, 390. 

iiioiuids and mound builders, 19. 

INIount Desert Isl.ind, 164. 

Mount Iloiie, 121. 

Mount Vernon, 86, 226, 257. 

Moy' Ian, Stephen, 239; 

Mugwumps, 504. 

Muh' len berg. Frederick A., 257, 2.58. 

IMul'ligfin, Colonel, 411, 455. 

Murfreesboro, 417, 433, 458. 

nnisie and composers, 559, 585. 

musical societies, 560. 

musical instruments, 560. 

mutineers, those wlio rise against law- 
ful authority, 80. 

mutiny, rebellion against lawful au- 
thority, especially a revolt of sol- 
diers or seamen against their com- 
mander, 176. 

Mutiny Act, 176. 

Napoleon, 277, 285, 297. 
Napoleon III, 472. 
Narragansett Bay, 53, 130. 
Narragansett Indians, 115, 121, 129. 
N-ir v:i' ez (eth), 38, 74. 
Nashville, 209, 415, 417, 442, 459. 
national hymns, songs, poems, 309, 5.59. 
National L^nion party, 402. 
nationalization, the act of investing the 
supreme power in the central gov- 
ernment, 228. 
naturalization, 376, 543, 582. 

Acts, 278, 293. 
Nauvoo, 346. 
naval cruise, 584, 607. 
Navigation Acts, S3, 122, 152, 168. 
navy, improvement of, 507. 

education in, 598, 608. 
Navy Island, 346. 
navy yard. 405. 
Nebraska, 473, 602. 
Necessity, Fort, 140. 
negroes, 373, 4.38, 462, 465, 466, 552, 
602. 

Dred Scott Decision, 384, 386, 388. 

plot, 103, 166. 

as soldiers, 427, 446. 

education, 467, 555. 

emancipated, 462, 467. 

suffrage. 470. 477. 

in power, 476. 
Negro Insurrection, 338. 
Netherlands, 77. 
Netherland, New, 71, 101, 102, 106. 



660 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



noiitrality, the state of refraining from 
nifling or interfering witli l)elliger- 
ent nations, 2('>S. 
neutrality, declaration of, GOO, (iOS. 
New Alliion, 4.S. 
New Brunswick, 01, 195. 
New England, 117, 360. 
New England Confederation, 117, 101, 

165. 
New Hampshire, 125, 136. 

grant, 125. 

first settlement, 125, 164. 

purpose, 125. 

early history, 125, 126. 

government, 125. 

customs, manners, industry, 125. 

character of colonists, 126. 
New Haven, 128, 130, 557. 
New Jersey, 107. 

grant, 105, 165. 

name, 105. 

first settlement, 105. 

government, 105. 
New Mexico, 39, 42, 43, 74, 75, 363, 

370, 371, 398, 592, 608. 
New Orleans, 44, 61, 67, 225, 285, 309, 
394, 418, 420, 457, 483, 495, 502, 
515, 562, 604. 
New Orleans riot, 515. 
New Yorl?, 17, 56, 62, 64, 66, 67, 69, 70, 
71, 76, 93. 99, 152, 171, 232, 237, 
238, 249, 250, 458, 474, 482, 517. 

claim, 99. 

object, 99. 

trading posts, 99. 

first settlement. 99, 164. 

early history, 99-104. 

patroon system, 99. 

government, 101, 102. 

Indians, 100. 

name, 102. 

captured by English, 102. 

religion, education, manners, cus- 
toms, 103. 

armies at, 193. 
New York, Greater, 5.38, 543. 
Newark, 195. 
Newburgh, 225. 

Addresses, 229. 
Newfoundland, 49, 53, 62, 73, 137. 473, 

592. 
Newport, 130, 208. 
Newport, Christopher, 77, 78. 
newspaper, 239. 

first, 160. 

first daily, 160. 

first weekly, 166. 



number, 255. 

anti-slavery, 339. 
Newton, 455. 
Newton, Isaac, '24. 
Newtown, 123, 127. 
Nevada, 363, 447, 459, 485. 
Niagara Falls, 61, 599. 
Niagara, Fort, 141, 143, 225. 
Niagara River, 61. 
Nicaragua, 374, 381, 578. 

trouble with, 590. 
Nicholson, 90. 
Nicolls, 103. 
Nii CO let', Jean, 58. 
Ni' na (nen'yii), 29, 31. 
Nonconformists, 112. 
Non-intercourse Act, 296, 393. 
Norfolk, 418, 422, 580. 
North and South — 

on tariff, 321. 

on slavery, 339, 340. 

on location of capitol, 263. 

comparative strength and resources, 
401. 

advantages and disadvantages, 404. 

counteracting proclamation, 408. 
North Carolina, during Civil War, 405, 

456. 
North Dakota, 517, 605. 
North. Lord, 224. 
Northmen, 20, 21, 72. 
Northwest, 288. 
Northwest Passage, 48. 
Northwest Territory, 210, 232, 233, 

245, 366. 
Notre Dame of Namur, 356. 
Notre Dame University, 556. 
Nova Scotia, 53, 55, 61, 7.3, 75, 137. 
Nueces River, 358. 
Nullification Act, 334, 389, 396. 
Xuncio, a ])ermanent official representa- 
tive of the Pope at a foreign court 
or seat of government, 375. 
Nu' rem berg, 26. 

oath of allegiance, a declaration under 
oath by which a person promises 
fidelity and loyalty to a particular 
government or sovereign, 210. 

oath of office, a solemn declaration made 
by a public official with his liaiid 
on the Bible, to preserve, protect, 
and defend the Constitution of the 
United States and faithfully to per- 
form the duties of his office, 258. 

O'Brien, Jeremiah, 240. 

O'Connell. Cardinal William, 593, 608. 

Ogdeu, 482. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



661 



Ogdensburg, 225. 

Ugie' thOrpe, James, 96, 97, 08, 16t>. 

O Ilara, General, 223. 

Ohio, 62, 2G6, 293. 393, 439. 

Ohio River, 60, 249. 

Ohio Valley, 134, 138, 140. 

Oklahoma, 40, 516, 582, 604. 

Old North Church, 184. 

Old South Meeting House, 176, 179 

Old State House, 185, 224. 

Omaha, 481, 538, 556, 606. 

Omnibus Bill, 371, 373. 377, 378. 

Ontario, Lake, 56, 61, 143. 

"Open Door" with China, 537, 606. 

orchestra, 561. 

Order of Star Spangled Banner, 376. 

Orders in Council, 291, 296, 299, 300, 
393. 

Ordinance of 1787, 232, 247, 253, 256, 
319, 464. 

Oregon, 40, 48, 74, 289, 316, 388, 395, 
397; 398, 399. 

■ joint occupancy. 354. 
territory, 354, 358. 

Oregon, ship, 578. 

Oregon trail, 481. 

Orinoco River, 31, 35, 49. 

O risk' a ny, battle, 201, 244. 

O ro' no. Chief, 189, 239. 

Os' ge o' la, Chief, 341. 

Osgood, Samuel, 259. 

Ostend, Belgium, 381. 

Ostend Manifesto, 381. 

Oswego, 225. 

O' tis, James, 161, 170, 173, 235. 

Ottawas, 63. 

out-flanking, to get the better of by ex- 
tending an army's lines beyond or 
around the enemy, 441. 

Owen-Glass Bill, the currency measure 
enacted during President Wilson's 
administration. It is so called be- 
cause Senator Owen of Oklahoma 
had charge of it in the Senate, and 
Representative Glass of Virginia 
in the House, 596. 

I'ii' €a, William, 240. 
Pacific coast. 40. 
Pacific Fur Company. 289. 
I'acific Ocean, 36, 48, 69, 73. 
Pa d'lT la, Father Juan (huan'), 45. 
Paine, John Knowles, 559. 
Paine, Thomas, 191, 255. 
painting 563. 
Pakenham, Edward, 309^ 
Piil' ma, Don To' mas Es trii' dil, 534, 
582. 



Piilm' er, E ras' txis Dow, 564. 

Palmer, J. M., 525. 

Pa' 15 Al' to, 360, 397. 

Pii' los, 31. 

Pan-American Congress, 514, 605. 

E.xposition, 574. 
Panama, 31, 35, 36, 48, 73. 
I'anama Canal — 
Zone, 540. 

construction of, 576, 607. 
French Company, 578. 
Tolls Repeal Bill, 597. 
Ilay-Pauncefote Treaty, 374, 578. 
Clayton-Bulwer Treaty, 374, 398, 

577. 
Spooner Act, 576. 
Pango Pango, 536. 
panic — 

of 1837, 344, 397. 
of 1857, 387, 399. 
of 1873, 484, 603. 
of 1893, 519. 
of 1907, 585, 607. 
prevention of, 597. 
Papal Nuncio, 375. 

papists, an offensive term applied to 
Roman Catholics by their Protest- 
ant opponents, 179. 
parcel post. 597, 608. 
Paris, treaty of, 145, 166, 167, 224, 

247, 254. 
parity, equality, 528. 
Parker, .\lton B., 580, 581. 
Parker, Horatio, 559. 
Parker, James Dunn, 559. 
Parker, Theodore, 339. 
Parkman, 57, 119, 398, 569, 571. 
parliament, the national assembly of 
the British nation embracing two 
branches, the House of Lords and 
the House of Commons, 169. 
Parliamentary Party, 112. 
parole, promise upon one's faith or 
honor to fulfill stated conditions, 
such as not to bear arms against 
one's captors, to return to custody, 
or the like ; a watchword given 
only to ofiicers of guards, as dis- 
tinguished from a countersign 
given to all guards, 449. 
Parsons' cause, 170. 
parties, political. 237, 247, 269. 324. 
Federalists. See Federalists. 
Anti-Federalists. See Anti-Federal- 
ists. 
Republican. See Republican. 
Democrat. See Democrat. 
.\nti-Masonic. See Anti-Masonic. 



662 



A HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES 



Whig. See Whig. 

Anti-Slavery, or Liberty, 348, 364. 

Native American, 348, 353, 375, 397.- 

Free-Soil, 304, 378, 386. 

National Republican, 382. 

Constitutional Union, 388. 

Know-nothing, 375, 399. 

Liberal Republican, 479. 

National I'uion, 402. 

Greenback Labor, Union Labor, or 
Populist, 4Sfa, 487, 498, 518, 525. 

Prohibition, 487, 498. 

National Democrat, 525. 

Farmers' Grange, or Patrons of Hus- 
bandry, 4.S6. 

Progressive, 594. 
Partisan corps, 217, 221, 246. 
passage to Pacific, 58, 69, 79. 
patent, an official document issued by 
a sovereign power, conferring a 
right or privilege on some person 
or party, 55. 
patent, 544. 

De Monts', 55. 

Baltimore's, 86, 109. 

Penn's, 109. 
Patrons of Husbandry, 486. 
Patroon system, 99, 149. 
Paulus Hook, capture of, 212, 245. 
Payne-Aldrich Tariff Bill, 588, 596, 007. 
Payne, John Howard, 560. 
Peace, International, 536, 583, 591, 

006, 607. 
Peace policy (Indians), 487, 555. 
Peacock, ship, 303, 394. 
Pearce, 563, 
Pea Ridge, 417, 457. 
Peary, Robert E., 589, 607. 
PekIn, 537. 
Pelican, ship, 48, 304. 
Pemaquid, 135. 
Pemberton, General, 431, 432, 433, 455, 

458. 
Pendleton Bill, 501, 604. 
Pendleton, Senator, 500. 
Ponn, William, 105, 106, 107. 
Pennsylvania, 67, 106, 146, 147, 161, 
249. 

grant, 107, 109, 165. 

name, 107. 

first settlement, 107. 

religion, 107, 110. 

early history, 107-111. 

Indians, 108. 

government, 109, 111. 

education, 110, 111. 

during Civil Wi\r, 405, 429, 445. 
Pennsylvania Gazette, 140 



Pennsylvania Packet, 160. 

Pennsylvania University, 557. 

Penob.scot Indians, 189. 

Pensacola, 390. 

pensions, 474, 512, 605. 

Peoria, 61, 483. 

Pe' quot Indians, 129, 165. 

Perez, Juan (pe'reth, huan'), 28, 29, 

30, 31, 39, 72. 
periods of history — 

of earliest inhabitants, 15-19. 

of discoveries and explorations, 20-71. 

of Civil W'ar, 400-460. 

of reconstruction and expansion, 461- 

601. 
of colonization, 76-163, 563. 
of Revolution, 167-226, 563. 
critical, of our history, 227-241. 
of development of the States to the 
Civil War, 248-391. 
periods of the Revolutionary War, 182. 
Perry, Captain Oliver. 304, 394. 
Perry, Commodore Matthew C, 382, 

399. 
Perry's treaty with Japan, 382. 
Perryville, battle, 417, 455, 458. 
Peru, 38. 

Pe ru' scliitz, O. S. B., Rev. J., 59:'.. 
Petersl)urg, 445, 449, 460. 
Philadelphia. 55, 93, 108, 153, 165, 171, 
198, 207, 237, 250, 251, 353, 392, 
397, 544, 603. 
Philadelphia, ship, 290, .393. 
Philip. King, 121. 
Philippines. 37, 48, 536, 576, 579. 
war in, 534. 
United States in possession of, 533, 

606. 
Church in, 535. 
retention of, 581. 
Phillips, Wendell, 3.39. 
Phipps, William. 135. 
phoenix, a bird fabled to exist single, 
to be consumed by Are by its own 
act, and to rise again from its 
ashes ; hence an emblem of immor- 
tality, 193. 
phonograph, 548. 
Pickens, 217. 

Pickens, Fort, 390, 411, 412. 
Pierce, Franklin, 377. 
president, 378-383, .399. 
sketch of life, 378. 
Pike, Albert, 500. 
Pike, Lieutenant, 289. 
Pilgrims, 112, 113, 115, 116. 
Pillow, Fort, 416, 457. 
Pinckney, Charles C, 276, 295. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



663 



pine tree shilling, 153. 

Pinta, 29, 31. 

Pjfu zon' (thon') Brothers, 29. 

Pinzon, VIn gen' te, .S3. 

piracy, 94, 319. 

Piscataqua, 12-5. 

Pitcairn, Major, 185, 187. 

Pitt, William, 141, 142, 172, 180, 224. 

Pittshurg, 140, 142, 249, 495, 518. 

Pittsburg Lauding, 416, 455. 

Pius VI, Popo, 254. 

Pius IX, Pope, 489, 603. 

Pius X, Popo, 561, 585, 601, 607, 608. 

Pi zar' ro, Francisco, 38, 74. 

Plains of Abraham, 144. 

platform, presidential, origin of, 336. 

plurality, the excess of the number of 
votes cast for the leading candi- 
date over those cast for each of his 
competitors in case there are more 
than two candidates, and no one 
receives a majority, or more than 
one-half of the votes, 388. 

Plymouth, 112, 113, 114, 116, 121, ICO. 

Plymouth Company, 51, 52. 

Plymouth Kock, 113. 

PO' cii hou' tas, 79. 

Poe, Edgar Allan, 396, 566. 

poles, discovery of, 589, 607, 60S. 

political parties during Revolution, 172. 

political scandals, 482-484, 603. 

Polk, General, 414. 

Polk, James K., 353, 397. 
president, 357-368. 
sketch of life, 357. 

polygamy, 523. 

P6n<;e de Le on', 35, 73. 

Pon' tl a€, Chief, 145. 

Pontiac's war, 145. 

pooling, the act of combining competing 
corporations for the control of 
trade by removing competition, 
508. 

Pope, General, 423, 424, 457. 

Popham, 112. 

population, 375, 543, 583. 
center of, 541. 

Porter, Admiral, 418, 432, 448, 459. 

Porter, David, 302. 

Port Hudson, 421, 433, 435, 458. 

Porto Rico, 31, 35, 73, 533, 534, 606. 

Port Royal, Nova Scotia, 55, 75, 135, 
136. 
South Carolina, 55, 74, 411, 412. 

Port Tobacco, 271. 

Portsmouth, 130, 581. 

Portugal, 25, 27, 33, 73. 

postage reduction, 500, 604. 



postal service, 549. 

savings system, 5SS, 607. 

posts, trading and military — 
French, 61, 133, 138, 140. 
Dutch, 99. 
Swedish, 105, 133. 
English, 210, 269, 392. 

potato, 31, 50, 90. 

Potomac River, 85, 86, 249, 424. 

Potter, E. C, 564. 

Poughkeepsie, 554. 

Powers, Hiram, 504. 

Pow' ha tan'. Chief, 79. 

preamble of Constitution, 238. 

Preble, Commodore, 290. 

prehistoric, the period before written 
history begins, 19. 

Prescott, Colonel, 187. 

Prescott, William Henry, 568. 

president, manner of electing, 257, 275. 

President, sliip, 297, 304, 393. 

Presidential Succession Law, 505, 604. 

Presque Isle (preskel'), 140. 

Prevost', 210, .309. 

Price, 411, 417, 456. 

prime minister, the chief or responsible 
head of the cabinet in Great Brit- 
ain, usually the first Lord of the 
Treasury, 224. 

Princeton, 195. 

Princeton, battle of, 197, 243. 

Princeton University, 105, 557. 

Pring, 112. 

printing press, 22, 43, 67, 72, 74, 160, 
165. 

prisons — 
Libby, 427. 
Andersonville, 427, 450. 

privateers, vessels owned by individ- 
uals to whom are issued by their 
government "letters of marque and 
reprisal" which give them the right 
to fit out vessels for the purpose 
of making war on the shipping of 
an enemy, 268. 

privateering, 213, 303, 304, 394, 480. 

privy council, the principal council of 
the English Sovereign, composed 
of the cabinet members and other 
persons chosen by the king, 156. 

prize, that which is seized by fighting, 
especially a ship. The prizes taken 
at sea are regulated by law. The 
money, realized by the sale of the 
booty, is taken by the captors in 
certain proportions according to 
rank, 305. 



664 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Proclamation, Emancipation, 426, 458, 
463, 464, 466. 
Amnesty, 463, 464, 602. 
Procter, A. A., 570. 
Proctor, A. C, 564. 
Proctor, General, 305. 
progress, a century's, 540-573. 
Prohibition party, 487. 
proprietary colonies, 155. 
protocol, a memorandum of resolutions 

arrived at in negotiation, 599. 
Providence, 119, 130, 131. 
provisional, temporary, 389. 
Ptol' e my, Claudius, 23, 24, 26. 
Pueblo, 362. 

Pu las' ki, 198, 216, 239, 246. 
Pullman Car Company, 524. 
Puritans, 63, 81. 88, 92, 112, 113, 116, 

119, 122, 129. 
Putnam, Israel, 181, 187, 188, 193. 

Quakers, 92, 105, 107, 108, 109, 116, 

119. 
quarantine, 495. 
Quartering Act, 178. 
Quebec, 54, 55, 56, 57, 59, 66, 67, 68, 

134, 136, 137, 141, 142, 143, 164, 

166, 189, 218, 243, 
Quebec Act, 178, 239, 
Queen Anne's War, 136, 166. 

Ra bi' dit, 30. 

Rahl, Colonel, 197. 

raid, Jackson and Stuart's, 422. 

raid, John Brown's, 386, 399. 

raids in Shenandoah Valley, 445. 

railroads, 432, 549 

first passenger, 326, 395. 

Union Pacific, 406, 424, 602. 

first trans-continental, 481. 

mileage increased, 484. 

regulation, 493, 507. 

transportation, 508. 

standard time, 549. 

systems, 549. 

Alaskan, 598, 608. 

to Pacific, 388, 4=81. 
Raisin River, 305. 
Ra' leigh, 443, 449, 459. 
Raleigh, Sir Walter, 49, 50, 52, 75, 76, 

80. 
Randall, James Ryder, 560. 
Randolph, John, 80, 259, 260, 312, 328. 
Ranger, ship, 214. 
Rapidan River, 430, 443. 
Rappahannock River, 425, 429. 
Riisle, Father, 62, 166, 254. 
ration, a fixed allowance, 450. 



Raw' don, General, 222, 247. 
Read, Thomas Buchanan, 446, 560. 
Reaper, McCormick, 545. 
rebellion — 
Bacon's, 83. 
Claiborne's, 88. 
Leisler's, 103, 166. 
Shays', 231, 247. 
Whiskey, 262, 392. 
Canadian, 346, 397. 
Dorr's, 3.52, 397. 
r(>ciprocity, an agreement between two 
countries by which special advan- 
tages are granted by one side in 
consideration of special advantages 
granted by the other, 513, 527, 589. 
reconstruction, 602. 
period of, 461-493. 
problems of, 462. 
Lincoln's policy of, 463. 
Johnson's views on, 463. 
Congress's policy of, 465, 476. 
Johnson's plan rejected, 465. 
acts, 469, 470, 471, 602. 
issue of campaign of 1868, 474. 
Sumner's and 'Stevens' policy, 465. 
independent measures, 469. 
evils resulting from, 478. 
close of epoch, 493. 
recruit, a newly enrolled soldier or 

sailor, 193. 
Red Cross Society, a national organiza- 
tion so named from its badge, a 
red cross on a white ground. Its 
purpose is the relief of suffering 
caused by war, pestilence, famine, 
flood, and fires, 539. 
Reed, Joseph, 207. 
reformation, 41, 44, 53, 85. 
Regiment, Sixth Massachusetts, 406, 

456. 
relations, Jesuit, 68. 
remonetize, to restore to use as legal 

tender, 496. 
Re nais sange', French, a new birth, or 

revival, 562. 
Republican, 268, 269, 277, 385. 
Jeffersonians, 265. 
War-, 300. 
Peace-, 300. 
National-, 338, 382. 
split in party, 594. 
platform of 1852, 377. 
of 1860, 388. 
of 1868, 474. 
of 1876, 486. 
of 1880, 498. 
of 1888, 511. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



665 



of 1896, 525. 
of 1900, 539. 
of 1904, 581, 
of 1908, 586. 
views on reconstruction, 465. 
elect presidents, 400, 446, 461, 47(i. 
479, 491, 499, 512, 526, 574, 5S1, 
587, 602, 603, 604, 607. 
Republican, Democratic-, 312, 324. 

elect president, 282, 295, 314. 
Resaca, 441, 459. 
Re sii' cii de la. Pill' mil, "ravine of tlic 

palms," 360, 397. 
Reservations, Indian, 487, 488. 
Resolutions, Virginia and Kentucky, 

279, 389. 
retreats, military — 

Washington's, 195, 243. 
Greene's, 221, 246. 
revenue tax, internal, the annual yield 
of taxes, dutifs, etc., which a na- 
tion or state collects and receives 
into the treasury for public use, 
483. 
Revere, Paul, 184. 

revolution, renunciation of allegiance 
and subjection resulting in an en- 
tire change of government, 181. 
Revolution, the American — 

conditions, acts, and events leading 

to, 167-183. 
battles of, and events in first period, 
184-204. 
in second period, 205-226. 
treaty of peace, 224. 
finances, 198, 220. 
government during, 174, 179, 185, 
204, 228. 
Revolution, Architecture prior to, 561. 

Sculpture prior to, 563. 
Revolutionists, German and Italian, 

375. 
Rhode Island, 119, 130, 177, 397. 
first settlement, 130, 165. 
name, 130. 

early history, 130, 131. 
government, 130, 131. 
religion, 131. 

character of settlers, 131. 
charter, 130, 165. 
and the Constitution, 237. 
Rhodes, James Ford, 571. 
Ri bault, Jean (Re bo', shan), 55, 74. 
Richard, Father, 67. 
Richardson, Henry H., 562. 
Richmond, 404, 408. 409, 413, 421, 422, 
423, 427, 440, 444, 445, 449, 460, 



right of deposit on mouth of Mississippi, 

285, 392. 
ring, a clique ; an exclusive combina- 
tion of persons for a selfish pur- 
pose, as to control the market, dis- 
tribute offices, obtain contracts, 
etc., 483. 
Uio Grande, 358, 361, 363. 
riots, .353, 397, 437, 458, 495, 509, 515. 

524, 604. 
roads and trails, 249, 252. 
Indian trails, 98. 
Colonial, 154. 
Wilderness Road, 250. 
Cumberland Highway, 316. 
Pennsylvania, 326. 
Pony Express, 373, 
to California, 364, 
Oregon trail, 481. 
Santa Fe, 481. 
Roanoke Island, 49. 
Robertson, James, 209. 
Ro ber val', Sleur, 54. 
Ro gham beau' (bo). Count, 223, 239. 
Roche, James Jeffrey, 571. 
Rolfe, John, 80. 

Romanesque' (esk), the prevailing 
architectural style developed from 
Roman principles, characterized 
mainly by the round arch, barrel 
vault, and general massiveness, 562. 
Roosevelt, Theodore, 533, 535. 
president, 574-586, 606, 607. 
sketch of life, 575. 
re-elected, 581. 
Root, Elibu, 576. 
Root, George F., 560. 
Rosecrans. General, 406, 417, 418, 432, 

433, 435, 455, 457, 458. 
Ross, General, 308. 
Rough Riders, 533. 
Roundheads, 81. 

Rousseau (so'), a French philosopher 
(1712-1778), a contemporary of 
Voltaire, and like him a denier of 
all authority arising from custom, 
history, right religion, and the 
state, 255. 
routes — 

from Genoa and Venice to the East. 

21. 
new route to India, 33, 72. 
Gosnold's, 51. 

Dutch East India Company, 69. 
north of Europe, 69. 
north of America, 49, 70, 75. 
to western settlements, 249. 
Roxbury, 184. 



666 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Royal colonies, 155. 

Royalists, 81. 

royalty, a percentage paid to the owner 
of a copyright or patent by one 
who is given the right to use it, 
515. 

rubber vulcanization, 545. 

Russian America, 473. 

Russian Government, 473. 

Ryan, Rev. Abram J., 567. 

Rys' wick, treaty of, 136, 137. 

Sa'€o, 130. 

sachems, Indian chiefs, 60. 

Sacramento, 362, 364. 

Saengerbund, North American, 560. 

Sadlier, Mary A., 568. 

Sagas, Norse, northern European pop- 
ular, historical, or religious tales 
of olden times, 21. 

Sii hii gun', 44. 

Saint-Gaudens, Augustus, 564. 

salaries, government, 259, 273. 

Salary Grab, 483. 

Salem, 116, 164. 

Salmon Falls, 135. 

Salt Lake City, 347. 

Samoan — 

difficulty, 513. 
settlement, 536, 605. 

Sam' o set, 115. 

Sampson, Rear Admiral, 531. 

San Di e' go, 366. 

San Do min' go, 484. 

Sands, 455. 

Sandusky, 225. 

Sandy Hook, 208. 

San Francisco, .39, 255, 362, 364, 306, 
481, 495, 532, 578, 579. 
disaster. 582. 607. 

sanguinary, attended with bloodshed, 
359. 

San Jacinto (ha sin' to), 341, 390. 
ship. 412. 

San Jose (hose'), 366. 

San Juan (huiin'), 35, 73, 533. 

San Miguel (me gel'), 38, 44. 

San Sal' va dor. 30, 72. 

Santa Anna. General, 341, 360, 362, 
390, 398. 

Santa Barbara, 366. 

Santa Clara, 366. 

Santa Fe, 42, 43, 75, 361. 

San' ta Fe Trail, 481. 

Santa Ma ri' a, ship, 29, 31, 68. 

Siin ti iV go, 532, 600. 

Santiago Harbor, 531. 



Saratoga, 182. 

Burgoyne's surrender at, 203, 216, 

218, 244. 
Convention, 203. 
ship, 309. 
Sargasso Sea, a vast oval-shaped region 
of comparatively quiet water in 
the Atlantic between the Gulf 
Stream and the Equatorial Cur- 
rent, 30. 
Sargent, John, 503 
Sar' to, Gui sep pe, 585. 
Sault Ste. Marie {sob' sant ma' ri), 63. 
Savage Station, 423. 
Savannah, city, 96, 97, 98, 210, 215, 

210, 245, 240, 247, 442, 459. 
Savannah River, 90. 
Savannah, ship, 289, 395. 
Say-and-Seal, Lord, 126. 
Saybrook, 120. 
Sayle, William, 93. 
Scalawags, 476. 
Seiir' bor ough, 215, 246.. 
Schley, Rear Admiral, 531, 606. 
S€he nee' ta dy, 135. 
S€hd' field. General, 443, 471. 
schools — 

first Spanish, 43. 
French, 67, 68. 
in Virginia, 84. 
In Maryland, 90. 
in New York, 99. 
in Massachusetts, 123. 
in Connecticut, 130. 
during Revolution, 253. 
Schouler, James, 571. 
Schuyler, Fort, 201. 
Schuyler. General, 203, 210, 244. 
Schuylkill River, 108. 
scientists, Franklin, 206, 255. 
Scott, Winfield, 307, 334, 341, 346, 361, 
362, 377, 398, 407, 409, 410, 456, 
457. 
scout, a person sent out to gain and 
bring in tidings, especially one em- 
ployed in war to gain information 
of the movements and conditions 
of the enemy, 221. 
Scrooby, 113. 

sculpture and sculptors, 563. 
secession, the withdrawal of a state 
from the national union, 389, 390, 
399, 404, 453, 462. 
readmission of states, 470. 
sedition, commotion; conduct directed 
against public order and the tran- 
quillity of the state, 278. 
See, Episcopal, of Baltimore. 254. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



667 



Se gu' rii. Father, 45, 75. 

Sem' i nOle wars, 315, 341, 395. 

Semmes, Captain, 447. 

Senate, president tried by, 471. 

Separatists, 52, 112, 113, 115. 

Sepulcher, Holy, 27. 

Se ra' pis, 215, 246. 

Ser' ra, Fatlier, 255, 366. 

Servia, 600. 

settlement — 

first Spanisl), 35. 

first on mainland, 42, 75. 

second on mainland, 42. 

first English. 50. 

French Huguenot, 55. 

first permanent French, 55. 

first permanent Dutch, 70. 
Seven Days' F.attles, 422, 457. 
Seven I'incs, 422. 
Seventh of INIarch Speech, 372. 
Se vier', John. 209, 217. 
Seward (su'erd). Secretary, 370, 372, 
398, 401, 420. 452, 472, 473, 490. 
sewing machine. 545. 
Seymour, Horatio, 474, 476. 
Shaft' er, General, 533, 606. 
Shan' Don, ship, 304, 394. 
Shaw, David T.. 560. 
Shay, Daniel, 231. 247. 
Shays' Rel)ellion. 231. 247. 
Shea, John Oilmary, 569, 571. 
Shenandoah Valley, 404, 421, 422, 444, 

445, 447, 457, 459. 
Sheridan, Fhilip, 446, 447, 449, 454, 

455, 459, 472, 510. 
Sherman Anti-trust Act, 550. 
Sherman, Roger, 191. 
Sliermau, Senator, 514, 587. 
Sherman Silver Coinage Act, 514, 520, 

525, 605. 
Sherman, William T., 433, 449, 450, 
452, 454, 455. 

on the Mississippi, 417, 418. 

at Missionary Ridge, 435, 458. 

and armies of the West, 440. 

march, 441-443, 447. 459. 

statue of, 564. 
Shields, 455. 
Shiloh. 416, 457. 
Ship Island, 411, 412, 420. 
Ship of State. 238. 
Sholes, Charles L., 545, 548. 
Sib' ley. Colonel, 436. 
Si' gel, 411, 417, 444, 445, 456, 457. 
Sigsbee, Captain, 530. 
silver in Nevada, 387, 485, 496. 
Singer, 545. 



Sioux Indians, 61, 4.36, 488, 518, 60::, 

605. 
Sitting Bull, 488, 518, 605. 
skirmish, a combat between small bodies 

of troops, 185. 
sky scrapers, 563. 
Sl."i' ter, Samuel, 270. 
slave trade, English, 46, 75. 
slavery, 149, 318, 354, 365, 375, 403, 
492. 

introduced, 81, 164. 

in Maryland, 90. 

in the Caroliuas, 94, 95. 

in Georgia, 98. 

in the South, 149. 

in the northern and middle colonies, 
149. 

treatment of slaves, 150. 

Ordinance of 1787, 233, 319. 

anti-slavery spirit. 255, 338, 339, 390. 

Emancipation Acts, 256. 

affected by cotton gin, 271. 

Fugitive Slave Law, 273, 369, 370, 
373, 378, 392. 

importation stopped, 294, 319, 339, 
393. 

anti-slavery champion, 330. 

anti-slavery papers, 339, .396. 

anti-slavery speeches, 339, 370. 

in District of Columbia, 339, 427, 
457. 

Underground Railroad, 374, 399. 

Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 378, 399. 

Wilmot Proviso, 363. 

al)olishment, 370, 400, 426, 446, 453, 
464. 

Compromise of 1850, 371, 373, 377, 
378. 

Missouri Compromise, 318, 370, 373, 
395. 

Dred Scott Decision, 384, 386, 388, 
399. 

Campaign of 1800. .388. 

Lincoln-Douglas debates, 385, 399. 

John Brown's raid, 386, 399. 
Smith, €. F., 415. 
Smith, Father John Talbot, 571. 
Smith, General Green Clay, 487. 
Smith, John, 78, 114, 159 
Smith, Joseph, 346, 396, 397. 
Smith, Samuel Francis, 560. 
smuggling, 170, 176. 
socialism, 551. 
social rank, 552. 
Sons of Liberty, 174. 
South Carolina, .389. 
South Dakota, 517, 605. 
South Hampton, 338. 



668 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



South Sea, 36, 37. 
Southern States, 602. 

during reconstruction, 466. 

legislatures, 466. 

reject fourteenth amendment, 469. 

government overthrown, 469. 

constitutional conventions of, 4G9. 

laws limiting suffrage, 468, 470. 

carpet-bag and negro rule, 476, 491, 
493, 602. 

Federal troops in, 493. 

New South, 502. 

provisional governors, 464. 

Freedmen's Bureau Bill, 467, 602. 

an issue in campaign (1868), 474. 

readmitted, 470. 
Southern Whites (Democrats), 479, 493. 
Spain, 27, 69, 224, 225, 472. 

first voyage, 29. 

discoveries, 35-45. 

first settlements, 35, 42. 

and the Indians, 31, 39, 42. 

claims and occupancj', 42. 

and the New World, 43. 

missionaries of, 44. 

martyrs of, 45. 

weakened in power, 51. 

and the Mississippi, 252, 268, 285, 
392. 
Spalding, Most Rev. Martin John, 65, 

475, 569. 
Spalding, Rt. Rev. James L., 570. 
Spanish-American colonies. 319. 
Spanish-American War, 578. 

causes, 530, 606. 

declaration, 531, 606. 

naval operations, 531-532. 

land campaigns, 532-533. 

treaty of peace, 533, 606. 

results, 534. 
Spanish Missions, 561. 
specie, coins of gold, silver, copper or 
other metal, issued under the gov- 
ernment stamp and used as a cir- 
culating medium of commerce, 230. 
specie circular, 337. 
specie payment, resumption of, 485, 

497. 603. 
Speedwell. 113. 
Sperry, Rear-Admiral, 584. 
spinning mill, 270. 

Spoils System, 333, 396, 482, 499, 500. 
Spoliation Claims, French, 340. 
Spoouer Act, 576. 
Spottsylvania, 444, 459. 
Springfield, 231. 
Squanto, 115. 



Squatter sovereignty, 364, 379, 380, 
386. 

Stamp Act, 173, 242. 

Stamp Act Congress, 174, 242. 

Standard Oil Company, 493, 550. 

standard time, 549. 

Standish, Miles, 114. 

Stanton, Edwin M., 401, 471, 490, 602. 

Stanwix, Fort, 201 

Star of the West, ship, 390. 

Star Route frauds, 500. 

Star Spangled Banner, 425. 

Stark, General, 202. 

Stark, Molly, 203. 

starving time, 80, 164. 

Staten Island, 193. 

states' rights, 403. 

statue of liberty, 508, 604. 

St. Augustine, 42, 43, 55, 75, 561. 

St. Augustine Cathedral, 561. 

Stay Laws, 231. 

St. Bartholomew, 62. 

St. Brandon, 26. 

St. Clair, General, 266. 

St. Clair, Lake, 61. 

steamboats, invention, 289, 393. 

steamboats, 316. 

Stedman, Edmund Clarence, 570. 

Steel Trusts, 550. 

Stephenson, Fort, 305. 

Steii' ben, Baron, 198, 212, 222, 239, 
245. 

St. Eu sta' tins, 71. 

Stevens, Thaddeus, 465. 

Stevenson, Adlai B., 519. 

Stewart, Captain, 304. 

Stillwater, battle of, 203, 244. 

St. John, John P., 504. 

St. John's Church, 180. 

St. John's College, 90. 

St. Lawrence, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 66, 68, 
74, 75, 137, 143. 

St. Leger, 200, 201, 203. 

St. Louis, 210, 410, 483, 607. 

St. Mary's, Md., 68, 86, 87, 88. 

St. Mary's, Mich., 65. 

stock company, an incorporated com- 
pany whose capital is represented 
by various shares held by dififei'eut 
persons, 550. 

Stockton, Commodore, 361. 

Stoddard, Charles W., 571. 

Stone, 455. 

Stone River battle, 417, 455. 

Stony Point, capture of, 212, S45. 

Stoughton Musical Society, 560. 

Stowe, Harriet Beecher, 375, 568. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



669 



strategem, a trick in war for doceiviug 

the enemy ; secret plot, 201. 
strategic, pertaining to wnrlike opci-M 

tions, 413. 
St. Paul city, 01. 
St. Pliilip, I<\)rt, 420. 
St. Pierre, Commander, 140. 
St. Pierre Isle, 62. 
Strassburg, 72. 
strikes, 344, 509, 518, 524, 576, 605 

607. 
Stuart, General, 422. 
Stuart, Gilbert, 160, 186, 255, 563. 
Stuart, Monarchs, 112. 
Stuy' ves iint, Peter, 101, 106. 
suffrage, 474. 

educational qualifications, 471. 

negro, 470, 477. 

woman, 591. 
Sullivan, General, 188, 208, 209. 
Sullivan's Island, 190, 
Sulpicians, 271. 
Sumter, 218, 222. 
Sumter, Fort, 390, 404, 405. 406, 435, 

456, 459. 
Superior, Lake, 63, 65, 66. 
Supreme Court — 

Dred Scott Decision, 384, 388, 899. 

on secession, 462. 
Susquehanna Valley, 250. 
Sutter, Colonel, 364. 
Swallow, Silas E., 580. 
Sweden, New, 106. 
Swedes, 105, 133. 

Tabb, Father John B., 570. 
Taft, William H., 535, 576, 582, 586, 
597. 

president, 587-594, 607. 

sketch of life, 587. 
Ta' ney. Chief Justice, 384. 
Tarbell. 563. 
tariff, 259, 324, 40.3, 493. 

Hamilton's plan, 261. 

protective, 261, 394, 486, 498, 575, 
581, 589. 

duties, 351. 

revenue, 498. 

of 1810, 311. 

of 1824, 321, 395. 

of 1828, 327, 328. 

Clay's Compromise, 335, 338, 390. 

during Civil War, 406. 

Morrill, 424. 

change in, 479. 

party issue, 503. 

Mills, 510. 

McKinley, 513, 588, 605. 



Wilson, 521, 605. 

Difigley, 527, 588, 605. 

Payne-Aldrich, 588, 596, 007. 

board, 588. 

Underwood, 590, OOS. 
Tiirlc' ton, 21(», 221. 
taxation, a charge laid upon persons or 
property for the support of the 
government, 171. 
taxation — 

in Maryland, 87. 

in Pennsylvania, 110. 

caused by French and Indian War, 
146. 

resistance to, 168, 177, 262. 

and representation, 171, 172, 173. 

after the Revolution, 231. 

by tariff, 261. 

direct and indirect, 262. 

internal, 406, 483. 

during Civil War, 438. 

income, 590, 008. 
Taylor, Fort, 390. 

Taylor, Zacharj% 341, 360, 364, 397, 
398. 

president, 369-373. 

sketch of life, 369. 

death, 372, 398. 
tea tax, 177. 

Te cum' seh. Chief, 297, 306, 307, 393. 
Te De um, 30, 240. 
Tekawitha (tek a wi' tha), Catharine, 

60. 
telegraphy, 353, 397, 473, 547, 002, 607. 
Tender Laws, 231. 

Tennessee, 209, 273, 310, 392, 405, 41.5, 
417, 418, 433, 435, 441, 456, 463, 
465, 468, 470, 478. 
Tennessee River, 414. 
Tennessee, ship, 448. 
ten per cent government, 463. 
Tenure of Office Act, 469. 471, 508, 602, 

604. 
te' pee, 10. 
Territories, the, 100. 
Terry, General, 448. 
Texas, 61, 340, 356, 370, 371, 389, 396, 
397. 

annexation of, 354, 350. 
Thames, battle of the, 300, 394. 
Thanksgiving Day, 114, 164. 
Thatch, Robert, 95. 
Thay' er, 503. 
Thomas, Dr., 487. 
Thomas, General, 434, 435, 442, 443, 

458, 459, 490, 003. 
Thomas, Theodore. 501. 
Thomiison, P.on.inmin, 255, 341. 



670 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



Tbor' wald sen, 564. 

Thwaites, 68. 

Ti €6n del- o' ga, Fort, 141, 142, 1S6, 

IS!), 200, 218, 242, 244. 
Tild(>ii, Samuel J., 482, 486, 4i>l, 510, 

004. 
Tippecanoe, battle, 297, 39;>. 
Ti tan' ic disaster, 592, 608. 
tobacco, 31, 50, 80, 82, 170, 2.51. 
To ho pe' kii, 307, 380. 
Toleration Act, 88, 90. 
toleration, religious, 84, 88, 98, 110, 

119, 122, 128, 129, 131, 239. 
Tolls Repeal Bill, 597, G08. 
Tolosa, Fatbei", 45, 74. 
Tompkins, vice-president, 314. 
Toral, 53.3, 606. 
Tories, 172, 180, 192, 209, 218, 225, 

230, 252, 301. 
Tor tu' gas. a group of ten small coral 
islets at the western end of Florida 
Keys in the Gulf of Mexico. Dur- 
ing the Civil War the Federal gov- 
ernment confined prisoners at Fort 
Jefferson on one of the islands, and 
this practice has been continued, 
390. 
TOr que mil da (tor kii mii tha) , 44. 
Tos ca nel' 11, 23, 26. 
town meetings, 116. 
towns and cities, 92, 152, 250, 317. 
Townshend Acts, 175, 242. 
towns or townships, 117, 156. 
trade dollars, 486. 
traffic, liquor, 262. 
trails. See under "roads." 
Transportation Bill, 178. 
treason, Arnold's, 218. 
treaty, 230. 

between Spain and Portugal, 83. 

of Paris, 62, 145, 166, 167. 

between Dutch and English, 102. 

Penn's with the Indians, 108 

Ryswick, 136. 

between Canada and Iroquois, 136. 

Utrecht, 137. 

after the Revolution, 224, 247, 254. 

Aix-la-Chapelle, 137. 

Jay's with England, 269, 392. 

Jay's with France, 275. 

with Spain and Algiers, 270. 

with France, 277. 

after War of 1812, 310. 394. 

with England, 316, 354, 358, 395. 

with Spain, 316, 392, 533, 606. 

by Adams and Clay, 327. 

with Tripoli, 393. 

with Japan, 382, 399, -608. 



Clayton-Bulwer, 374, 398, 577. 

Hay-Pauncefote, 374, 578, 597. 

Burlingame, 474, 495, 602. 

Washington, 480. 

witli China, 5(12. 

Berlin, 514. 

with CoJoiiibia, rejected, 578. 

between Russia and Japan, 581, 607. 

Webster-Ashburton, 352, 397. 

with Mexico, 303, 382. 
treaty elm, 109. 
Trent affair. 411, 425, 456. 
Trent, ship, 412. 
Trenton, 195, 258. 
Trenton, battle of, 197, 240, 243. 
Trin i dad', 31, 35, 72. 
Triple Entente, 601. 
Tripoli, 290, 312, 393. 
Troy, Female Seminary. 558. 
True-blooded Yankee, ship, 305. 
trustees, the, 96, 97. 
trusts, 493, 550, 581. 
Tunis, 312. 
Turner, Nat, 338. 

turnpike road, a road having gates or 
bars set across it to stop its use 
until toll is paid for keeping tlie 
road in repairs, 317. 
turret, a revolving cylindrical tower 
constructed of thick iron plates, 
behind which cannon are mounted, 
420. 
Tiis' €a ro' ras, 93. 
Tus ke' gee, 552. 
Tu tu r la, 536, 540, 606. 
Tweed,, Ring, 482, 603. 
Tweed, William M., 482. 
Tyler. John, 350, 397. 

president, 351-356. 
typewriting, 545, 54S. 

Uncle Tom's Cabin, 375, .399. 
"Unconditional Surrender" Grant, 476. 
Underground Railroad, 374, 399. 
Underwood Tariff Bill, 596, 608. 
University — 

Spanish, 43. 

Harvard, 43, 123. 
Upland, colony. 107. 
Urban VIII, Pope, 24, 64. 
Ursulines, 44, 68, 145, 562. 
Utah, 363, 371, 397, 523, 605. 
U trecht (u'trekt), treaty, 137. 

Valencia Bay, 473. 
Val Ian di gham case, 439, 446: 
Valley Forge, 182, 199, 205, 207, 220, 
244. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



671 



Van Buren, Martin, 332, 336, 364, 396. 
president, 344-349, 354. 
slietcli of life, 344. 
Van Cortlandt Manor, .562. 
Vancouver, 4S1. 

Van Doru, General, 417, 418, 407. 
Van Rens' sel aer, 100, ."53. 
Van Rensselaer, General, 301. 
Van Twiller, Wouter, 101. 
Ved' der, 503. 
Ve nan' go, 140. 
Venezuela, 523, 605. 
Venice, 21, 46. 

Vera Cruz, 37, 360, 362, 398, 599. 
Verde, Cape, 32. 
Vermont, 249, 273, 392. 
Verrazano (ver' rat sii' no), 53, 61, 62, 

73. 
Ves pu' cius (shus), Americus, 34, 73. 
veto, the power to prevent or prohibit 
the carrying out of laws or plans 
attempted by another department 
of the government, 352, 467, 469, 
473, 485, 495, 497, 602, 603. 
Vexilla Regis, a famous hymn of the 
Catholic Church sung in the 
church on Good Friday when the 
Blessed Sacrament is carried In 
procession from the Repository to 
the High Altar. 30. 
vice-president, manner of electing, 257. 
viceroy, an officer acting for the king, 

39. 
Vlcksburg. 417. 420. 421, 431, 432, 435, 

454, 457. 458. 466. 
Vil le Mar ia, 68. 
Vin cennes, 61, 210. 
Vinland, 21, 72. 

Virginia, 81, 87, 113, 146, 209, 232, 249. 
martyrs in, 45. 

attempt at colonization, 49, 73. 
named, 49. 

first settlement, 50, 52, 75, 164. 
Company, 51, 76, 112. 
early history, 76-84. 
character of colonists, 78. 81, 114. 
purpose in settling, 77. 
government, 82. 

religion, education, manners and cus- 
toms, 84. 
during Civil War, 405, 410, 424, 435, 

443, 456. 
after Civil War, 470. 474. 
Virginia and Kentucky, Resolutions, 

279. 
Virginia University, 558. 
Visitation nuns, academy, 455. 



Vol taire', a French freethinker, an in- 
fidel writer, an apostle of the 
French Revolution, who turned his 
gifts of poetry and wit into mali- 
cious weapons of slander and ridi- 
cule against the Catholic Church. 
"Crush tlie infamous thing," was 
the motto of his life, 255. 
volunteers, call for, 359, 406, 407, 423. 

437, 456, 606. 
Von Ket tier. Baron, 537. 
voyage of — 
Diaz, 25. 
Columbus, 29. 
Magellan, 36. 
Cabot, 46. 
Verrazano, 53. 
Hudson, 69, 70. 
the Dutch, 69-71. 
Gosnold, 51, 75. 
Vulture, ship, 219. 

Wake Island, 536. 
Wal der see, Count von, 538. 
Wald see miil ler, Martin, 34. 
Walker, 503. 
Walker Tariff, 358. 
Walker, William, 381. 
Walking Purchase, 108. 
Wall Street, New York, the money capi- 
tal of our country. There exists 
the stock exchange where all kinds 
of stock — shares in different busi- 
ness concerns — are bought and 
sold, 517, 585. 
Wallace, Lew, 445, 566, 585. 
Wallace, W. R., 193. 
Wam pa no' ags, 115, 121. 
wampum, 108. 
war — 

French and Indian, 62, 138, 147 166 

169, 170. 
in Europe, 41, 53, 74, 141, 182, 267 

600. 
in England, 81. 
with Florida, 97. 
King Philip's, 121, 131, 165. 
Pequot, 129, 165. 
Inter-colonial, 132. 
King William's. 135, 166. 
Queen Anne's, 136, 166. 
King George's, 137, 166. 
Pontiac's, 145. 

American Revolution, 167-226. 
between France and England, 206. 
Indian, 142, 266, 307, 315, 341, 396, 

487, 603. 
Civil, 271, 280. 



672 



A HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 



with Barbary States, 290, 393, 394. 

of 1812, 297-310, 369, 393. 

with Mexico, 358-363, 397. 

Civil, 400-455. 

Spanish-American, 530-536, 606. 

between Russia and Japan, 581. 
War Department, 402, 467. 

Secretary of, 471, 472, 483, 490, 576. 
War of 1812, 369, 393. 

causes, 300. 

plan, 300, 305, 308. 

events, 297-310. 

treaty of peace, 310. 

results, 311. 
Warren, Joseph, 184, 187, 242. 
warships become schools, 598, 608. 
Warwick, 130. 
Washington, 517, 605. 
Washington, Booker T., 552. 
Washington, Capital, 86, 259, 392, 394, 
406, 410, 413, 421, 424, 429, 445, 
455, 483, 605, 606. 
Washington, Col. William, 221. 
Washington, Fort, 193, 195, 243. 
Washington, George, 63, 81, 181, 190, 
231, 235, 254, 451, 513. 

birth, 97, 166. 

first appearance in history, 140, 141, 
142. 

chosen Commander-in-chief, 186, 242. 

in charge of the army, 188, 242. 

asks aid of .\bnakis, 189. 

secures ammunition at Boston, 190. 

forestalls attack on New York, 190. 

gathers army at New York, 193. 

retreat, 195. 

commissions Hale, 195. 

hurries to New Jersey, 195. 

losses, 196. 

victory at Trenton, 197. 

victory at Princeton, 197. 

in sore straits with army, 107. 

at Brandywine, 198. 

defeated at Philadelphia, 198. 

fails at Germantown, 199. 

in camp at Valley Forge, 199, 205, 
244. 

American "Fabius," 199. 

Comments of Frederick the Great on, 
200. 

delays Howe, 200. 

Conway Cabal, 206. 

at Monmouth. 20S. 245. 

at White Plains, 208, 245. 

watching Clinton, 212. 

and Arnold, 219. 

advises appointment of Greene. 220. 

hastens to Yorktown. 223, 247. 



surrender to, 223, 247. 

with the army at Newburgh, 225, 229. 

resigns his commission, 226, 247. 

Farewell -Vddress, 22.">, 1!74. 

as statesman and vvi'itcr, 231. 

l)resident of Constitutional Conven- 
tion, 234, 238. 

leader of Federalists. 237. 

guard of, 240. 

first president, 240, 604. 

reply to Catholics, 241. 

president, 257-275, 392. 

re-election, 266. 

dedth of, 280, 392. 

statue of, 563. 
Washington, Martha, 253. 
Washington, Treaty, 479. 
Washington University, 558. 
Wasp, ship, 303, .394. 
Watauga River, 209. 
Watertown, 117, 127. 
waterways, 325, 326, 395, 404, 584, 600. 
Watson, Thomas E., 580. 
Wayne, .\nthony, 181, 212, 267, 392. 
weather bureau. 487. 
Weaver, James B., 498, 518. 
Webster-Ashburton Treaty, 352, 397. 
Webster, Daniel, 233, 239, 261, 299, 312, 
328, 333, 351, 369, 372, 375, 394, 
399. 
Webster-Hayne debates, 333, 396. 
Webster, Noah, 253. 
Weed, Thurlow, 412. 
Welcome, 108. 
Wells, 136. 
Wells, Horace, 558. 
Wesley, John, 98. 
West, 289, 316, 355, 393. 

Clark's conquest, 209, 2.32, 245. 

settling of Tennessee and Kentucky, 
209. 249. 

emigration to Northwest territory, 
266, 267. 

development of, 317. 
West, Benjamin, 145. 160. 255, 563. 
West India Company. 70, 99. 
West Indies. 31, 46, 48, 49, 51, 62, 71, 
75, 77, 92, 93, 95, 97, 152, 170, 
208. 
West, Joseph. 93. 
West Point, 218, 476. 
W>st Virginia, 406. 412, 447, 458. 
western reserve, 232. 
Wethersfleld, 127. 
Weyler, 529. 
Whalley, 122. 
Wheeler and Wilson, 545, 
Wheeler, vice-president, 491. 



INDEX AND GLOSSARY 



673 



Whigs, 172, ISO. 878. 

elect president, 350. 369. 
Wliiskey lusuiTeetiou, 2(j2, 392. 
Wliiskey King, 4S3, G03. 
Whistler, James McXeill, 5G3. 
White, Chief .Justice. 557, 592, 008. 
White, Father Andrew, 87, 88, 159. 
White House, 308. 
White, John, 49. 
White Plains, 208, 245. 
Whitefield, (Jeorge, 98. 
Whiting, (ieorge E., 559. 
Whitne.v, Eli, 270, 392. 
Whittier, John G., 360, 372, 566. 
wilderness, 444, 459. 
Wilderness I{oad, 250. 
WilUes, Captain, 412. 
Wilkinson, General, .306. 
William III of England, 103. 
William and Mar.v, 90, 135. 
William and Mar.v College, 84, 557. 
William Ilenr.v, Fort, 142. 
Williams. Itoger. 119, 130. 
Williamsburg. 84, 422, 457, 557. 
Wilmington, 106. 222, 436, 448. 
Wilmot, David, 363. 
Wilmot Proviso, 363. 
Wilson, Henr.y, 479. 
Wilson Tariff Act, 521, 525, 605. 
Wilson. Thomas Woodrow, 594. 

president, .595-601, 608 

sketch of life, .595. 
Wilson's Creek. 411, 412. 456. 
Winchester, 446. 455, 459. 
Windsor, 126, 127. 
Windward Islands, 31, 35, 72. 
Winfleld, Governor, 78. 
Winns bor ough, 217. 



Wins low, Captain, 447. 
Wiuthrop, John, 126. 
Winthrop, John, Jr., 126, 128. 
Wirz, 427, 4.50. 

Wisconsin, 63, 65, 341, 366, 603, 
Wisconsin lUver, 58. 
Wisconsin University, 558. 
witchcraft, 119, 166. 
Wolcott, Senator, 527. 
Wolfe, General, 142, 143, 166. 
Wood, Leonard, 533. 
Woodworth, Samuel, 560. 
Worden, John, 419. 
Work, Henry Clay, 560. 
Wounded Knee, 518. 
Wright brothers, 549. 
writers, infidel, 255. 
Writs of Assistance, 170. 
Writs of Injunction, 586. 
Wy ant, A. H., 563. 
Wyoming, 363, 517, 605. 
Wyoming Valley, 111. 209, 24.5. 

Xavier, of Hurons, 64. 
Xavier, St. Francis, 59. 
X Y Z Commission, 276. 

Yale, 130, 156. 557. 

Yea mans, (Jeorge, 92. 

yellow fever epidemic. 495, 603. 

York peninsula, 411, 421. 

Yorktown. 213. 222. 223, 247, 422, 604. 

Young, Brigham, 346. 

Y'ucatan, 36. 

Ze la ya, president, 590. 
Zol li coffer, 414. 
Zuni. 39, 40, 74. 



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